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Application of WST-8 based colorimetric NAD(P)H detection for quantitative dehydrogenase assays

The reduction of tetrazolium salts by NAD(P)H to formazan product has been widely used to determine the metabolic activity of cells, and as an indicator of cell viability. However, the application of a WST-8 b...

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Association of TM6SF2 rs58542926 gene polymorphism with the risk of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and colorectal adenoma in Chinese Han population

Genetic factors affect the risk of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and colorectal adenoma (CRA) importantly. Transmembrane protein 6 superfamily member 2 (TM6SF2) rs58542926 is a significant genetic ...

The active role of the transcription factor Sp1 in NFATc2-mediated gene regulation in pancreatic cancer

Adenocarcinoma of the pancreas is one of the most aggressive tumor diseases affecting the human body. The oncogenic potential of pancreatic cancer is mainly characterized by extremely rapid growth triggered by...

Role of the highly conserved G68 residue in the yeast phosphorelay protein Ypd1: implications for interactions between histidine phosphotransfer (HPt) and response regulator proteins

Many bacteria and certain eukaryotes utilize multi-step His-to-Asp phosphorelays for adaptive responses to their extracellular environments. Histidine phosphotransfer (HPt) proteins function as key components ...

Up-regulation of DcR3 in microbial toxins-stimulated HUVECs involves NF-κB signalling

Sepsis is a severe condition characterised by the body’s systemic inflammatory response to infection. The specific sepsis-related biomarkers should be used in clinical diagnosis, therapeutic response monitorin...

Soluble expression of recombinant midgut zymogen (native propeptide) proteases from the Aedes aegypti Mosquito Utilizing E. coli as a host

Studying proteins and enzymes involved in important biological processes in the Aedes aegypti mosquito is limited by the quantity that can be directly isolated from the mosquito. Adding to this difficulty, digest...

Identification of the major diacylglycerol acyltransferase mRNA in mouse adipocytes and macrophages

Triacylglycerols (TAGs) are the major form of energy storage in eukaryotes. Diacylglycerol acyltransferases (DGATs) catalyze the final and rate-limiting step of TAG biosynthesis. Mammalian DGATs are classified...

Purification and characterization of cysteine protease from miswak Salvadora persica

Generally, proteases in medicinal plants had different therapeutic effects such as anti-inflammatory effect; modulate the immune response and inhibitory effect toward tumor growth. In this study, protease was ...

Effect of IAPP on the proteome of cultured Rin-5F cells

Islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP) or amylin deposits can be found in the islets of type 2 diabetes patients. The peptide is suggested to be involved in the etiology of the disease through formation of amyloid d...

Structure and function of a lignostilbene-α,β-dioxygenase orthologue from Pseudomonas brassicacearum

Stilbene cleaving oxygenases (SCOs), also known as lignostilbene-α,β-dioxygenases (LSDs) mediate the oxidative cleavage of the olefinic double bonds of lignin-derived intermediate phenolic stilbenes, yielding ...

Simple spectrophotometric assay for measuring catalase activity in biological tissues

The details of a precise, accurate, and sensitive spectrophotometric method for measuring catalase activity are presented here. The assay was established for biological samples and depends on the rapid formati...

Establishment of a detection assay for DNA endonuclease activity and its application in the screening and prognosis of malignant lymphoma

Endonucleases play critical roles in maintaining genomic stability and regulating cell growth. The purpose of this study was to evaluate detection of endonuclease activity as an indicator in the early diagnosi...

Isolation of quercetin and mandelic acid from Aesculus indica fruit and their biological activities

In this study Aesculus indica fruit was subjected to isolation of phytochemicals. Two antioxidants quercetin and Mandelic acid were isolated in pure state. The free radical scavenging and acetyl choline esterase ...

Purification and characterization of α-amylase from Trichoderma pseudokoningii

Previous studies have demonstrated that members of Trichoderma are able to generate appreciable amount of extracellular amylase and glucoamylase on soluble potato starch. In this study the α-amylase was purified ...

Identification and characterization of smallest pore-forming protein in the cell wall of pathogenic Corynebacterium urealyticum DSM 7109

Corynebacterium urealyticum , a pathogenic, multidrug resistant member of the mycolata, is known as causative agent of urinary tract infections although it is a bacterium of the skin flora. This pathogenic bacteri...

Characterization of association of human mitochondrial lysyl-tRNA synthetase with HIV-1 Pol and tRNA 3 Lys

An important step in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) replication is the packaging of tRNA 3 Lys from the host cell, which plays the role of primer RNA in the process of initiation of reverse transcripti...

Feruloyl esterase immobilization in mesoporous silica particles and characterization in hydrolysis and transesterification

Enzymes display high reactivity and selectivity under natural conditions, but may suffer from decreased efficiency in industrial applications. A strategy to address this limitation is to immobilize the enzyme....

Characterization of sulfhydryl oxidase from Aspergillus tubingensis

Despite of the presence of sulfhydryl oxidases (SOXs) in the secretomes of industrially relevant organisms and their many potential applications, only few of these enzymes have been biochemically characterized...

Glycyl-alanyl-histidine protects PC12 cells against hydrogen peroxide toxicity

Peptides with cytoprotective functions, including antioxidants and anti-infectives, could be useful therapeutics. Carnosine, β-alanine-histidine, is a dipeptide with anti-oxidant properties. Tripeptides of Ala...

Antiproliferative factor (APF) binds specifically to sites within the cytoskeleton-associated protein 4 (CKAP4) extracellular domain

Antiproliferative factor (APF) is a sialoglycopeptide elevated in the urine of patients with interstitial cystitis—a chronic, painful bladder disease. APF inhibits the proliferation of normal bladder epithelia...

Use of a special Brazilian red-light emitting railroad worm Luciferase in bioassays of NEK7 protein Kinase and Creatine Kinase

Luciferases, enzymes that catalyze bioluminescent reactions in different organisms, have been extensively used for bioanalytical purposes. The most well studied bioluminescent system is that of firefly and oth...

Dacin, one metalloproteinase from Deinagkistrodon acutus venom inhibiting contraction of mouse ileum muscle

Mice were bitten by five-pace vipers ( Deinagkistrodon acutus ), and then envenomed. It was well-known that the snake venom mainly disturbed the blood homeostasis of the envenomed victims. Ocassionally, we found th...

Serendipitous discovery of light-induced ( In Situ ) formation of an Azo-bridged dimeric sulfonated naphthol as a potent PTP1B inhibitor

Protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) like dual specificity phosphatase 5 (DUSP5) and protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B (PTP1B) are drug targets for diseases that include cancer, diabetes, and vascular disorders ...

Chemical and structural characterization of α-N-acetylgalactosaminidase I and II from starfish, asterina amurensis

The marine invertebrate starfish was found to contain a novel α-N-acetylgalactosaminidase, α-GalNAcase II, which catalyzes removal of terminal α-N-acetylgalactosamine (α-GalNAc), in addition to a typical α-N-a...

Structural insight into the inactivation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis non-classical transpeptidase Ldt Mt2 by biapenem and tebipenem

The carbapenem subclass of β-lactams is among the most potent antibiotics available today. Emerging evidence shows that, unlike other subclasses of β-lactams, carbapenems bind to and inhibit non-classical tran...

Structural similarities and functional differences clarify evolutionary relationships between tRNA healing enzymes and the myelin enzyme CNPase

Eukaryotic tRNA splicing is an essential process in the transformation of a primary tRNA transcript into a mature functional tRNA molecule. 5′-phosphate ligation involves two steps: a healing reaction catalyze...

CrMAPK3 regulates the expression of iron-deficiency-responsive genes in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

Under iron-deficient conditions, Chlamydomonas exhibits high affinity for iron absorption. Nevertheless, the response, transmission, and regulation of downstream gene expression in algae cells have not to be inve...

Binding of smoothelin-like 1 to tropomyosin and calmodulin is mutually exclusive and regulated by phosphorylation

The smoothelin-like 1 protein (SMTNL1) can associate with tropomyosin (Tpm) and calmodulin (CaM), two proteins essential to the smooth muscle contractile process. SMTNL1 is phosphorylated at Ser301 by protein ...

Increased enzymatic hydrolysis of sugarcane bagasse by a novel glucose- and xylose-stimulated β-glucosidase from Anoxybacillus flavithermus subsp. yunnanensis E13 T

β-Glucosidase is claimed as a key enzyme in cellulose hydrolysis. The cellulosic fibers are usually entrapped with hemicelluloses containing xylose. So there is ongoing interest in searching for glucose- and x...

Interactions of histatin-3 and histatin-5 with actin

Histatins are histidine rich polypeptides produced in the parotid and submandibular gland and secreted into the saliva. Histatin-3 and −5 are the most important polycationic histatins. They possess antimicrobi...

Systematic substitutions at BLIP position 50 result in changes in binding specificity for class A β-lactamases

The production of β-lactamases by bacteria is the most common mechanism of resistance to the widely prescribed β-lactam antibiotics. β-lactamase inhibitory protein (BLIP) competitively inhibits class A β-lacta...

Copper chelation and interleukin-6 proinflammatory cytokine effects on expression of different proteins involved in iron metabolism in HepG2 cell line

In vertebrates, there is an intimate relationship between copper and iron homeostasis. Copper deficiency, which leads to a defect in ceruloplasmin enzymatic activity, has a strong effect on iron homeostasis re...

Knockdown of GGCT inhibits cell proliferation and induces late apoptosis in human gastric cancer

Gamma glutamylcyclotransferase (GGCT) has been proved to be involved in various cancers, but the biological function of GGCT in gastric cancer is still largely unknown.

Identification of replication-dependent and replication-independent linker histone complexes: Tpr specifically promotes replication-dependent linker histone stability

There are 11 variants of linker histone H1 in mammalian cells. Beyond their shared abilities to stabilize and condense chromatin, the H1 variants have been found to have non-redundant functions, the mechanisms...

Avoiding false discovery in biomarker research

Human tyrosine-protein phosphatase non-receptor type substrate 1α (SIRPA) is a surface marker identified in cardiomyocytes differentiated from human embryonic stem cells. Our objective was to determine if circ...

Computational studies of human class V alcohol dehydrogenase - the odd sibling

All known attempts to isolate and characterize mammalian class V alcohol dehydrogenase (class V ADH), a member of the large ADH protein family, at the protein level have failed. This indicates that the class V...

Effect of mutations to amino acid A301 and F361 in thermostability and catalytic activity of the β-galactosidase from Bacillus subtilis VTCC-DVN-12-01

Beta-galactosidase (EC 3.2.1.23), a commercially important enzyme, catalyses the hydrolysis of β-1,3- and β-1,4-galactosyl bonds of polymer or oligosaccharidesas well as transglycosylation of β-galactopyranosi...

Sustained activation of mTORC1 in macrophages increases AMPKα-dependent autophagy to maintain cellular homeostasis

The mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) is a well-conserved serine/threonine protein kinase that controls autophagy as well as many other processes such as protein synthesis, cell growth, and me...

Auto-thiophosphorylation activity of Src tyrosine kinase

Intermolecular autophosphorylation at Tyr416 is a conserved mechanism of activation among the members of the Src family of nonreceptor tyrosine kinases. Like several other tyrosine kinases, Src can catalyze th...

Effects of protonation on the hydrolysis of triphosphate in vacuum and the implications for catalysis by nucleotide hydrolyzing enzymes

Nucleoside triphosphate (NTP) hydrolysis is a key reaction in biology. It involves breaking two very stable bonds (one P–O bond and one O–H bond of water), in either a concurrent or a sequential way. Here, we ...

Molecular characterization of protein kinase C delta (PKCδ)-Smac interactions

Protein kinase C δ (PKCδ) is known to be an important regulator of apoptosis, having mainly pro- but also anti-apoptotic effects depending on context. In a previous study, we found that PKCδ interacts with the...

Identification and characterization of the novel nuclease activity of human phospholipid scramblase 1

Human phospholipid scramblase 1 (hPLSCR1) was initially identified as a Ca 2+ dependent phospholipid translocator involved in disrupting membrane asymmetry. Recent reports revealed that hPLSCR1 acts as a multifunc...

Tubulin is a molecular target of the Wnt-activating chemical probe

In drug discovery research, cell-based phenotypic screening is an essential method for obtaining potential drug candidates. Revealing the mechanism of action is a key step on the path to drug discovery. Howeve...

Altered activity patterns of transcription factors induced by endoplasmic reticulum stress

The endoplasmic-reticulum (ER) responds to the burden of unfolded proteins in its lumen by activating intracellular signal transduction pathways, also known as the unfolded protein response (UPR). Many signal ...

Conserved motif VIII of murine DNA methyltransferase Dnmt3a is essential for methylation activity

Dnmt3a is a DNA methyltransferase that establishes de novo DNA methylation in mammals. The structure of the Dnmt3a C-terminal domain is similar to the bacterial M. HhaI enzyme, a well-studied prokaryotic DNA meth...

Linalool isomerase, a membrane-anchored enzyme in the anaerobic monoterpene degradation in Thauera linaloolentis 47Lol

Thauera linaloolentis 47Lol uses the tertiary monoterpene alcohol ( R,S )-linalool as sole carbon and energy source under denitrifying conditions. The conversion of linalool to geraniol ...

1,2-Dichlorobenzene affects the formation of the phosphoenzyme stage during the catalytic cycle of the Ca 2+ -ATPase from sarcoplasmic reticulum

1,2-Dichlorobenzene (1,2-DCB) is a benzene-derived molecule with two Cl atoms that is commonly utilized in the synthesis of pesticides. 1,2-DCB can be absorbed by living creatures and its effects on naturally-...

Substrate specificity and function of acetylpolyamine amidohydrolases from Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Pseudomonas aeruginosa , a Gram-negative, aerobic coccobacillus bacterium is an opportunistic human pathogen and worldwide the fourth most common cause of hospital-acquired infections w...

Erratum to: Purification and characterization of a cytochrome c with novel caspase-3 activation activity from the pathogenic fungus Rhizopus arrhizus

The original article was published in BMC Biochemistry 2015 16 :21

BMC Biochemistry Reviewer Acknowledgement, 2015

The editors of BMC Biochemistry would like to thank all our reviewers who have contributed their time to the journal in Volume 16 (2015).

BMC Biochemistry

ISSN: 1471-2091

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Biochemistry Topics

Biochemistry Topics contains all the posts/pages that discuss the biochemistry of the synthesis and catabolism of carbohydrate, lipid, amino acid, and nitrogenous compounds with an emphasis on the medical and clinical relevance.

The Biochemistry Topic section includes all of the posts/pages that discuss the various aspects of the biochemistry of carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, amino acids and other nitrogen containing biomolecules, the processes of energy production, and the biochemistry of iron and copper homeostasis.

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Top 80 Biochemistry Research Topics

Biochemistry is simply the study of life. Enrolling in a biochemistry course requires you to extensively study the biological and chemical functions of living organisms, which equips you with the best biochemistry research topic ideas as you progress with your study. But again, all this is not a walk in the park.

Are you a student looking forward to writing a research paper that your examiners or teachers would be happy to read and award you an excellent score? We’ve shared the biochemistry research topics list across various subjects in this article to help you know what the best topics look like. Be sure to go through this piece in its entirety.

Biochemistry Research for Students (Preparation and Ideas)

In most universities, a senior biochemistry research project is a must before you complete your biochemistry coursework. But that’s not all. At various points of your study, whether studying pure biochemistry or related courses like molecular biology, examiners will require you to write a biochemistry research essay, term paper, or thesis.

To show you are focused on your studies and understand biochemistry better, come up with interesting biochemistry topics, and structure your work perfectly. A biochemistry research paper should capture the examiner’s interest and allow you to prove the content extensively. Ensure the topic is also manageable and compliant with your research environment.

With that, you will get things done in the nick of time without compromising on the quality of your work. No examiner will have a problem with a research essay, assignment, or dissertation that has sense and follows the academic rules. In fact, well-proposed biochemistry research ideas attract lots of funding, and you might be lucky to have a breakthrough in your early career.

Most of the biochemistry topics for research ideas revolve around:

• Structure and functioning of various body cells.
• Biochemical reactions in humans and plants.
• Heredity in living organisms.
• Pharmacology and pharmacognosy.
• DNA, RNA, and proteins in plants and animals.
• Molecular nature of all the bio-molecules.
• Micro-organisms.
• Enzymes, bioenergetics and thermodynamics.

Interesting Topics in Biochemistry

Many students struggle to think of interesting topics for their courses, and that’s not exceptional in biochemistry. You’ll notice that most of the topics’ interests depend on what a student is passionate about. Here are some interesting biochemistry topics to check out:

• Understanding the role of microbial itaconic acid production during fungi synthesis.
• Membrane biology and ion transport process in the innate immune response.
• Inhibition of sprouty2 in periodontal ligament cells and their extensive biological effects.
• Peptide and protein structure in membranes: what role do they play in cell membrane formation?
• Understanding the evolution of microbial infections and related effects in the existing surroundings.
• The role of B cell receptors in infections and vaccine production.
• Human health and bacteriophages of different kinds: How the two correlate.
• AN analysis of biofilm formation: From therapeutics to molecular mechanisms, and everything in between.
• Close comparison and analysis of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) in mice and humans.
• Understanding the relationship between NDR1/2 and mob-based proteins in cell cycle damage signaling.

Biochemistry Topics for Presentation

If you have an incoming presentation, you must pick your topics carefully. Presentations can be a challenge at times. While some individuals in the audience might not have extensive knowledge of the subject, you must have a detailed understanding of your topic to score better. Here are some of the best biochemistry presentation topics:

• A stepwise understanding of the human immune system and the role played in cell regeneration during an infection.
• A deep analysis of different plant pathologies with a focus on phytochemicals present and their roles.
• A look at the biochemical process that leads to apoptosis in patients with stage IV breast cancer.
• Understanding the close relationship in terms of practice in biochemistry and pathological psychiatry.
• Understanding different types of polymorphism and how they affect the DNA of human beings.
• How hormone formation in children is dependent on the environment and child’s health condition.
• The role of human cloning in the production and consumption of various types of vaccines.
• The relationship between human molecular adaptation and diet: Does diet play a role?
• Understanding how biological processes are dependent on the functioning of the human central nervous system.
• Comparison of mice and human circulatory system: Functioning, susceptibility, capacity, and features.

Hot Topics in Biochemistry

Biochemistry has a vast range of hot topics to explore. Since you might not have the chance to write about everything concerning the course, our suggestions narrow your search efforts. Take a look at some of the hot topics in biochemistry below:

• How professional breast cancer detection and screening is changing the lives of university students.
• The revolution of tissue clearing techniques for optical microscopy as witnessed for the past five years.
• Clinical features of acute copper sulfate poisoning and role of biochemistry in management interventions.
• The role of malt in various beer quality and effects on beer stability: Industrial biochemistry of beer making.
• Solid and liquid-state fermentation in the production of biochemical supplements for human and animal consumption.
• Controlled mixed fermentation as witnessed in pharmaceutical product making over the years and the new normal.
• The roles of polyphosphate on the virulence of Erwina caratovora bacteria in a range of plants.
• An extensive comparison of the significant aspects of biochemical studies at the college and university level in the last half-century.
• Analysis of molecular genetics and its close relationship with muscular dystrophy in men and women.
• Supporting evidence on children’s growth and development in countries using genetically modified organisms feeding products.

Project Topics for Biochemistry

Would you like to write a project topic on biochemistry that might change the world? Then you need to work on something that excites and allows you to develop a deep interest in your course. Project topics in biochemistry are not complicated, provided you are willing to challenge yourself and learn. Here are some of them for inspiration.

• Breast cancer and obesity in women of younger age; the clinical analysis from a biochemistry perspective.
• Understanding biochemistry of biomolecules and amino acids and their clinical application in drugs and supplement making.
• The future of artificial intelligence and its relevance to biochemistry: The gradual changes witnessed over the last four years.
• Understanding stability of 81 analytes in human blood, serum, and plasma during diagnosis in clinical biochemistry set up.
• History of clinical biochemistry and why it matters to modern human medicine.
• Transforming the liver function tests with new biochemistry diagnostic simple tools; how to make things result-oriented
• The role of clinical biochemistry in helping us understand the human immune system.
• Understanding and redefining the role of the human bones: How biochemistry transforms the narrative on human bones predisposition.
• A detailed clinical biochemistry analysis during pregnancy: tests associated with pregnancies and early child development.
• The rise of clinical biochemistry in the present times, from introductory chemistry of life to foundation on infections and disease interventions.

Biochemistry Research Topics for Undergraduates

Choosing an ideal biochemistry research topic as an undergraduate student taking biochemistry at the college or university level can be a complex process for you. We have ten topics that you can choose to base your research on. Let’s take a look at the best biochemistry research topics for undergraduates’ topics:

• Microbial food spoilage, resulting disorders, and the best biochemistry control approach to leverage.
• Comparative examination of serum calcium level among males using biochemistry testing techniques.
• Phytochemical analysis of specific tomato products available in the market for public health safety.
• The oxidative stress status of mice fed on oil bean seed meal and show the same applies to biochemical processes in humans.
• How biochemical production of top-quality bar soaps compares with most detergents you see in the market today.
• What are the health dangers associated with lead in water consumed in most universities?
• Critical analysis of Pterocarpus mildbreadii (oha) seed: A detailed phytochemical review.
• How to use biochemistry synthesis pathways to create a compound that prevents reactions from taking place.
• Evaluation of bacteria components produced using pure starter culture in a biochemistry culture laboratory setup.
• What’s the bacteriological quality of meat products in most butcheries in town?

MCAT Biochemistry Topics

You must always take your Medical College Admission Test seriously if you want to get a chance to join your favorite medical school. The test gives you a chance to show that you’re ready to handle the program and maintain an excellent performance throughout. Since you’re looking to get admission, here are the best MCAT biochemistry topics you might want to consider:

• Application of mathematical concepts and techniques in biochemistry and their role in general medicine.
• How catabolic and anabolic enzyme reactions contribute to cell functionality: Data-based enzymatic reasoning and graphical representations.
• Chemical and physical foundations of biological systems that help us appreciate human anatomy.
• How critical analysis and reasoning skills acquired in biochemistry play a significant role in medical schools.
• How multiple biosynthetic pathways like the citric acid cycle and glycolysis influence human health and functionality?
• A look at the psychological, social, and biological foundations of behaviors in relation to human biomolecules.
• Understanding the biochemical basis of human psychology.
• Critical analysis of biochemistry study areas and how they transform medicine.
• Understanding the relationship between Omega-3 fatty acids and blood glucose levels in adults.
• How fruits and vegetables regulate blood sugar in patients with diabetes: Biochemical pathways and mechanisms.

Popular Biochemistry Research Paper Topics

As a student pursuing biochemistry, you should be aware of some topics to expect during your program. Luckily, a lot is happening in the biochemistry field, giving you a chance to explore the subject even better. Take your time and go through these popular biochemistry research paper topics we have suggested below.

• How does chemical energy flow in human cells during metabolism?
• Understanding the primary chemical processes and their close relationship to the functionality of living organisms.
• How biotechnology and molecular biochemistry continues to transform genetics and botany in the modern world.
• How has the Coronavirus impacted the study and application of biochemistry for the last one year?
• How common bleaching agents react with human skin and biochemistry interventions that solve the matter once and for all.
• How do laboratory and medical-based practical experiments help undergraduate students understand biochemistry better?
• How can factories leverage biochemistry and help achieve the goal of clean energy in cities and congested towns?
• What biochemical activities are involved in drug production and testing? Pharmaceutical quality assurance and control
• Discussing and analyzing the chemical properties of carbohydrates in energy formulation.
• What factors necessitate fatty acids beta-oxidation? Fatty acids as super fuel in the human bodies functioning.

Current Biochemistry Topics

There’s no better way to show that you’re a sharp and informed student than knowing what’s happening in the biochemistry academic and practical world. Knowing current biochemistry topics is one way to showcase your awareness. We have compiled this list to help you create a top-quality research paper. Here we go!

• How do hydrocarbons in amino acids impact biochemical reactions when the human body gets subjected to medication?
• Why biochemistry research is promising when it comes to developing the best methods of initiating new medications to patients.
• Understanding the covid-19 vaccines chemical properties and reactions in adult men and women.
• Explaining various reactions to vaccines in the trial stage and how biochemistry has helped achieve the desired vaccines effectiveness.
• What are the roles of biochemically developed rotavirus vaccines in acute gastroenteritis among infants?
• How to best preserve plant extracts meant for experiments in biochemistry? Plant biochemistry and biotechnology research.
• The relationship between different types of brain cancer with radiation exposure and genetics.
• Understanding measles among infants and the most effective biochemistry based vaccine remedy
• The role of biochemistry in governing cell motility during various stages of development.
• The role of microscopy, scanning, and serum medical examinations in biochemistry.

Get Biochemistry Writing Help

Are you confused about the best biochemistry project topics to work on? The above topics are an ideal starting point. But completing your assignment with the huge workload that comes with biochemistry is a significant problem. Worry not because you can now get biochemistry writing help from us.

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The biochemical basis of disease

Alastair j. barr.

Department of Biomedical Science, University of Westminster, London, U.K.

This article gives the reader an insight into the role of biochemistry in some of the current global health and disease problems. It surveys the biochemical causes of disease in an accessible and succinct form while also bringing in aspects of pharmacology, cell biology, pathology and physiology which are closely aligned with biochemistry. The discussion of the selected diseases highlights exciting new developments and illuminates key biochemical pathways and commonalities. The article includes coverage of diabetes, atherosclerosis, cancer, microorganisms and disease, nutrition, liver disease and Alzheimer’s disease, but does not attempt to be comprehensive in its coverage of disease, since this is beyond its remit and scope. Consequently there are many fascinating biochemical aspects of diseases, both common and rare, that are not addressed here that can be explored in the further reading cited. Techniques and biochemical procedures for studying disease are not covered in detail here, but these can be found readily in a range of biochemical methods sources.

Introduction

Diabetes mellitus is a condition in which the body is unable to control blood glucose levels adequately, resulting in high blood glucose levels (hyperglycaemia). Symptoms include frequent urination due to the osmotic effect of excess glucose in the urine, thirst due to loss of fluids and weight loss. Possible long-term complications of diabetes if blood glucose has been poorly controlled include cardiovascular disease (such as atherosclerosis and stroke) and damage to nerves, the kidney and eyes, which can potentially lead to blindness. Diabetes is a major health problem with an estimated 425 million people affected worldwide, and these numbers are predicted to rise. The rise in numbers is associated with an increase in obesity in the population and treating the complications is a major healthcare cost. In the U.K., some estimates predict the cost could reach 17% of the NHS budget.

Most people will be familiar with the classification of diabetes into the two main forms, Type 1 and Type 2; however, it is increasingly clear that there are in fact several different types of diabetes, some of which overlap to some extent. Recent research analysing nearly 15000 diabetics showed they could be clustered into five distinct groups based on specific biomarkers 1 of the condition, which is significant because this better classification system may lead to improved treatment strategies in the future. Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease in which cells of the body’s immune system cause destruction of insulin secreting β-cells in the pancreas, leading to a deficiency of insulin production. There are typically antibodies against key pancreatic proteins involved in insulin storage and secretion. It is a relatively rare form of the disease affecting 5–10% of diabetics, which is usually diagnosed in childhood and is not associated with excess body weight. Type 2 diabetes is the more common form of the disease, affecting 90–95% of diabetics, and is characterised by a loss of ability to respond to insulin (i.e. there is insulin resistance, also termed as insulin insensitivity). At diagnosis, individuals are typically over 30 years old, overweight, have high blood pressure and an unhealthy lipid profile (referred to as the metabolic syndrome). Established disease is associated with hypersecretion of insulin, but this is still inadequate to restore normal blood glucose levels, and the condition may progress towards insulin deficiency. The causes of diabetes are thought to be a combination of genetic and environmental factors, and it is recognised that being overweight is a strong risk factor for developing Type 2 diabetes.

Insulin action

In healthy individuals, blood glucose levels range between 3.5 and 5.5 mmol/l before meals. This range is maintained by the actions of hormones (primarily insulin and glucagon, but also adrenaline, cortisol and growth hormone) which control the production and uptake of glucose, levels of glycogen (the stored form of glucose), and fat and protein metabolism, as required following meals, during fasting and exercise. Both insulin and glucagon are polypeptides produced by the pancreas (β-cells – insulin; α-cells – glucagon).

Insulin is secreted in response to an increase in blood glucose levels and its overall effect is to store chemical energy by enhancing the uptake and storage of glucose, amino acids and fats; consequently reducing blood glucose levels, via actions on liver, muscle and adipose tissue (specifically adipocytes – fat cells). Glucagon, on the other hand, via a complex interplay with other hormones and the nervous system increases blood glucose by stimulating the breakdown of glycogen, fat and protein. When blood glucose is high, after a meal for example, insulin acts on the liver to decrease glucose synthesis (gluconeogenesis), increase glucose utilisation (glycolysis) and increases glycogen synthesis (glycogenesis). When the storage capacity for glycogen is reached, insulin increases synthesis of fatty acids (lipogenesis), via acetyl CoA as an intermediate, which is then exported for triglyceride synthesis in adipocytes. In muscle, insulin stimulates uptake of glucose, by recruiting the glucose uptake transporter type 4 (GLUT-4), and enhances glycogen synthesis and glycolysis. In adipose tissue, there is facilitated uptake of glucose which is metabolised to glycerol and subsequently used together with fatty acids to synthesise triglycerides. Insulin also inhibits pathways involved in lipolysis. In addition, insulin increases amino acid uptake and protein synthesis in muscle and is considered an anabolic hormone (i.e. one that builds up organs and tissues).

At the biochemical level, insulin produces its effects by binding to the insulin receptor – a cell surface glycoprotein composed of two extracellular α subunits and two β subunits that span the membrane ( Figure 1 ). The receptor has tyrosine kinase activity (i.e. enzyme activity that catalyses the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP to a tyrosine amino acid within a protein, also known as tyrosine phosphorylation). Binding of insulin to the receptor initially causes tyrosine phosphorylation of the receptor itself, and then phosphorylation of intracellular proteins termed as insulin receptor substrate (IRS)-1 and IRS-2, followed by a complex series of intracellular signalling events involving many other kinases that lead to the physiological changes in carbohydrate, fat and protein metabolism discussed above via changes in gene expression and the activity of metabolic enzymes. The effects of insulin on glucose uptake are mediated via the glucose transporter GLUT-4, which is stored in intracellular vesicles in an inactive state, and insulin stimulates the movement of these vesicles to the plasma membrane where GLUT-4 becomes inserted into the membrane forming a pore that allows glucose uptake into the cell ( Figure 1 ).

Abbreviation: P, phosphorylation on tyrosine.

Disease complications and ketoacidosis

Many of the longer term complications of diabetes involve effects on both large arteries (macrovascular) and small arteries and capillaries (microvascular). High blood glucose leads to proteins and lipids becoming modified in a non-enzymatic process by exposure to sugars, forming advanced glycation end products that have been implicated in the disease process. Oxidative stress and damage to the vascular endothelium lining blood vessels is also involved. One of the diagnostic tests for diabetes involves measuring levels of glycated haemoglobin (HbA 1c ) from red blood cells. This is a valuable test because it gives an assessment of the average plasma glucose concentration over months, because of the 120 days lifespan of a red blood cell, and it also gives an indication of how effective treatment has been.

An acute serious life-threatening condition associated with untreated Type 1 diabetes is diabetic ketoacidosis. It develops in the absence of insulin, during which there is increased glucose production by the liver but because of the absence of insulin cells in the periphery, such as muscle cells, are unable to take-up the glucose and use it. The consequent high blood glucose levels results in the kidneys filtering and removing it from the body in urine. This is associated with osmotic diuresis (loss of fluids and electrolytes) and dehydration. As an alternative energy source, triglycerides (fats) from adipose tissue are broken down to free fatty acids and taken up by the liver. Here they are converted into acetyl CoA which is the precursor for formation of ketones (acetoacetate, β-hydroxy-butyrate and acetone) within mitochondria. These are referred to as ketone bodies and released into the blood and are detectable in the breath giving a distinctive smell similar to that of acetone or pear drops. Release of ketones into the blood causes a drop in pH (acidosis) and the body tries to compensate by hyperventilating. If untreated, these events can lead to coma and death.

For treatment of Type 1 diabetes, insulin is essential. Human insulin is now produced by recombinant DNA technology, rather than via extraction from the pancreases of animals. Diet and exercise are key to treatment of Type 2 diabetes and this can be combined with drug treatment.

Cardiovascular disease – atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis, also known as hardening of the arteries, is a chronic arterial disease that develops over many decades and is a major cause of deaths worldwide. A raised patch or plaque, develops in the arterial wall that is rich in fat, cholesterol and calcium, and over time this hardens and narrows the artery depriving the region supplied by the blood vessel of oxygen (ischaemia). Rupture of the plaque causes blood cell fragments called platelets to stick to the surface of the injury, leading to thrombosis (formation of a blood clot) which can result in a total blockage of the affected artery. If a coronary artery is affected, a myocardial infarction (heart attack) may result or if a cerebral artery supplying the brain is affected ischaemic stroke may result. Multiple risk factors have been identified for development of atherosclerosis. Some of these are modifiable, such as an unhealthy blood lipid profile, high blood pressure, Type 2 diabetes, smoking, obesity, stress and physical inactivity. Other factors such as age, gender, race and a family history of heart disease cannot be changed. The biochemistry of lipid metabolism and process of atherosclerosis are discussed below.

Cholesterol metabolism and lipoproteins

Cholesterol and fatty acids are two common types of lipids, defined as water-insoluble molecules in cells, that are soluble in organic solvents ( Figure 2 ). Both molecules have important biological functions. Cholesterol is an important component of cell membranes where it modulates fluidity, and a precursor of vitamin D and steroid hormones produced by the adrenal gland, testes and ovaries. It is also used as a starting point for the synthesis of bile acids in the liver, which are secreted into the intestine where they solubilise fats and aid in the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K). Fatty acids are precursors of membrane phospholipids and glycolipids, and are fuel molecules that are stored as triglycerides (esters of glycerol and three fatty acids) ( Figure 2 ).

( A ) Structures of cholesterol and cholesterol ester. In cholesterol ester, the R group is a fatty acid as shown in (D). ( B ) Hydrolysis of triglyceride to glycerol and fatty acids by a lipase. There are several different lipases (e.g. lipoprotein lipase of endothelial cells and hormone-sensitive lipase in adipocytes). (C) Key steps in the multistep synthetic pathway of cholesterol. HMG CoA, 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA. HMG CoA reductase is the rate-limiting step. ( D ) Fatty acids are carbon chains (most commonly 12–22 carbons) with a methyl group at one end and a carboxyl group at the other. Saturated fatty acids are ‘filled’ (saturated) with hydrogen and have no double bonds. Monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) have one carbon–carbon double bond which can occur in different positions. These MUFAs may have a double bond with hydrogens in the cis configuration (i.e. hydrogens at either side of the double bond are orientated in the same direction) or the trans configuration (i.e. hydrogens are orientated in different orientations). The cis configuration introduces a kink in the molecular shape of the carbon chain altering physical properties. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) have more than one double bond. The letter n or Greek symbol ω, is used to indicate the position of the bond closest to the methyl end. For example, n−6 PUFAs are characterised by the presence of at least two double bonds with the first between the sixth and seventh carbon from the methyl end.

Since lipids are insoluble in water, they are transported in the plasma as protein–lipid complexes (lipoproteins), which are divided into different types (chylomicrons, very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL), low-density lipoproteins (LDL), high-density lipoproteins (HDL)) based on their size, lipid composition and the type of protein they contain. The proteins embedded in the lipoproteins have a stabilising function and are recognised by specific receptors in the liver and peripheral tissues. In the exogenous pathway, dietary fat in the small intestine is dispersed into small droplets by bile acids and broken down into fatty acids and glycerol. Once in the enterocyte (cell lining the small intestine), the fatty acids are synthesised into triglycerides again, and packaged into lipoproteins called chylomicrons together with a small amount of absorbed cholesterol, which has been converted into its ester form. Each chylomicron contains several different apoproteins (apoB-48, apoA-I, apoA-II) and acquires apoC-II and apoE. The chylomicrons pass via the lymphatic system and blood capillaries to muscle and adipose tissue. Here the enzyme lipoprotein lipase, on the surface of endothelial cells, breaks down most of the triglycerides into glycerol and fatty acids. These molecules are taken up by the peripheral tissues and either used as an energy source or stored. The remnant chylomicrons which are depleted in triglycerides but still contain the bulk of their cholesterol ester pass to the liver and, following binding of apoE to the LDL receptor on hepatocytes, the entire particle undergoes endocytosis, resulting in cholesterol being taken up by the liver. From here the cholesterol may be stored, converted into bile acids, secreted directly in bile or may enter the endogenous pathway.

In the endogenous pathway, the liver produces VLDL particles with newly synthesised triglyceride and a small amount of cholesterol ester. These particles deliver glycerol and fatty acids to peripheral tissues, as described above for chylomicrons. Removal of the triglyceride fraction from the particles, while retaining the cholesterol component, results in their conversion into intermediate density particles and ultimately LDL particles, laden with cholesterol ester. These LDL particles are the main carrier of cholesterol to cells for incorporation into membranes and steroid synthesis, but also play a key role in development of atherosclerosis by depositing lipid in the wall of blood vessels. The surface of the LDL particle contains apoB-100 which is a ligand (i.e. binds) for the LDL receptor located on pits on the surface of the hepatocyte. Apo-B-100 binding to the LDL receptor results in internalisation of the particle and its removal from plasma. The cholesterol content of the liver cells in turn regulates the levels of LDL receptors and other key genes involved in cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism in order to maintain a balance. The genes that are regulated include the enzyme HMG CoA reductase which is the rate-limiting enzyme in the multistep cholesterol synthesis pathway ( Figure 2 ). The levels of LDL receptor are also regulated by the secreted proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) which binds to the receptor and enhances its degradation in lysosomes. Cholesterol can return to plasma from tissues in HDL particles. HDL particles take up cholesterol, converting it into its ester form in the process, and from here it is transported away from the periphery to the liver. This may occur indirectly via transfer to VLDL particles or directly by a process involving the scavenger receptor B1 in hepatocytes which selectively takes up HDL cholesterol.

Disease process

Atherosclerosis involves damage to, or dysfunction of, the endothelial cells that form the inner lining of blood vessels, resulting in entry of LDL particles into the vessel wall ( Figure 3 ). Lipids and proteins of the LDL particle undergo oxidation by reactive oxygen species (e.g. superoxide, O 2 − ), generated via oxidative stress, to form oxidised LDL (oxLDL). OxLDL molecules participate in atherosclerotic plaque formation in several ways. They activate endothelial cells, promoting movement of monocytes and T cells into the vessel wall. Also the oxLDL is taken up by macrophages via ‘scavenger’ receptors resulting in conversion of the macrophages into lipid-rich foam cells. Accumulation of these cells give rise to the appearance of ‘fatty streaks’ within the endothelium. Various pro-inflammatory mediators are produced during this process which stimulate smooth muscle cell proliferation, and migration of these cells into the subendothelial layer. Matrix proteins such as collagen are deposited in large quantities by the smooth muscle cells leading to formation of a dense fibrous cap overlying the lipid-rich core. The plaque may partially block the lumen of the blood vessel or eventually rupture leading to formation of a thrombus as blood platelets adhere to the exposed subendothelial collagen.

See text for the description of the processes involved. Adapted from Heinecke, J.W. (2006) Lipoprotein oxidation in cardiovascular disease: chief culprit or innocent bystander? J. Exp. Med. 203 , 813–816; https://doi.org/10.1084/jem.20060218

Risk factors

Population studies have identified a major role for the type and amount of dietary fat in determining serum cholesterol, and established a strong correlation between total plasma cholesterol, in particular high LDL cholesterol, and coronary heart disease. While high LDL cholesterol, which makes up approximately 70% of total cholesterol, is associated with disease, HDL cholesterol levels are inversely correlated with disease. One of the earliest population studies, started more than 50 years ago, revealed that plasma cholesterol and deaths from coronary heart disease were substantially lower in southern Europe and Japan, while rates in North America and northern Europe were higher. The differences were strongly associated with levels of saturated fat consumption and have led to recognition of the healthy Mediterranean diet.

It is now recognised that different types of dietary fats have distinct effects on cardiovascular disease risk and the type of fat is more important than the total amount. Current evidence indicates that replacing saturated fats with unsaturated fats (especially polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs)) reduces cardiovascular disease risk. Studies of the native Inuit people living in the northern part of Greenland who have a diet rich in fish, and low coronary heart disease risk, have led to the recognition that n−3 PUFAs, such as eicosapentaenoic acid from fish, are protective against coronary heart disease. The cardiovascular benefits have been linked to anti-inflammatory effects of n−3 PUFAs, and effects on cardiac muscle cell electrophysiology and membrane fluidity. On the other hand, industrially produced trans fats, found in many processed foods, are associated with an increased risk of coronary heart disease. The recognition that industrially produced trans fats in the diet are not safe has led the U.S. Food and Drug Administration to phase out this type of fat from the food supply chain, with a deadline of 2018. Also, it is now recognised that a reduction in calories from fat, together with a compensatory increase in dietary carbohydrate from refined sugars and starches to compensate, is not a healthy approach as this is known to be associated with an increased prevalence of obesity and Type 2 diabetes.

Several genetic defects in the LDL receptor and apoprotein genes cause hyperlipidaemia and are associated with an increased risk of coronary heart disease, if untreated. Heterozygous familial hypercholesterolaemia (where one copy of the faulty gene is present) is relatively common, with 1 in 500 of the normal population affected, and is due to mutations in the LDL receptor. The mutations cause underproduction of the receptor and reduced clearance of the LDL cholesterol by the liver. The homozygous form of the disease (two copies of the faulty gene are present) is very rare and leads to highly elevated LDL cholesterol and premature death from coronary heart disease. Mutations in the apoproteins that function as ligands for the LDL receptor (e.g. apo B-100 and apoE) can cause high LDL concentrations and an increased risk of atherosclerosis.

It is worth highlighting that in addition to diet and genetics, there are many other factors that are recognised as risk factors for atherosclerosis (age, gender, smoking, high blood pressure, obesity, Type 2 diabetes, stress and physical inactivity).

Lipid-lowering drugs

There are a number of drugs that are used clinically to lower lipid levels and reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease. Two classes of drugs of note are the ‘statins’ and recently introduced PCSK9 inhibitors. Statins, such as simvastatin and lovastatin, inhibit the rate-limiting enzyme in the multistep cholesterol synthesis pathway which converts HMG-CoA into mevalonate leading to decreased hepatic cholesterol synthesis ( Figure 2 C). Consequently, there is an increase in hepatic LDL receptor expression and increased clearance of LDL cholesterol from plasma into liver cells, thereby lowering plasma LDL cholesterol levels. PCSK9 inhibitors used clinically are monoclonal antibodies that lower LDL cholesterol levels by inactivating the hepatic protease (PCSK9) that attaches to and internalises LDL receptors promoting their destruction. These drugs lower plasma LDL cholesterol levels by preventing LDL receptor destruction and are useful for patients who are intolerant to statins or have severely high cholesterol levels.

Although oxLDL plays a well-established role in the process of atherosclerosis, clinical trials of antioxidant molecules, such as vitamin E, for prevention of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease have not demonstrated any benefit.

Cancer is characterised by unregulated cell growth, leading to invasion of the surrounding tissue and spread (metastasis) of cells to other parts of the body. The abnormal growth, or tumour, may be broadly classified as benign (i.e. grows locally without invading adjacent tissues) or malignant (i.e. invades nearby tissues and metastasises). Although the majority of tumours in humans are benign and harmless to their host, some can be life-threatening because of their location pressing on vital organs (e.g. brain tumour) or because of hormones they release (e.g. thyroid adenomas). Most cancer deaths are due to malignant tumours, specifically the metastases that arise. The World Health Organisation estimates that there were 8.8 million deaths from cancer in 2015, and cancer is one of the leading causes of mortality worldwide, with more than two-thirds of deaths occurring in the developing world. Cancers are most often described by the part of the body they originated in and more than 200 different types of cancer have been documented, many of which occur with vastly different frequencies in different population groups or geographic areas. Overall, lung, liver, stomach and breast cancer cause the most cancer deaths.

Cancer is considered to be initiated as a result of genetic aberrations at the cellular level with biochemical and genetic evidence indicating that tumours arise from one ancestor cell (i.e. they are clonal). The causes are multifactorial, and combine individual genetic predisposition with environmental factors ( Table 1 ). Genetic aberrations (i.e. such as single-point mutations, large chromosomal deletions, amplifications or translocations in DNA) may occur spontaneously, following a failure in cellular DNA damage repair or recognition mechanisms, during the enormous amount of cell turnover in the body throughout the course of a human lifetime (referred to as somatic mutations). Alternatively, mutations may be caused by environmental factors (chemical carcinogens, UV exposure or an infectious agent) or be due to inherited genetic factors (referred to as germline mutations). The Knudson hypothesis, formulated by Alfred Knudson in 1971, suggested that two ‘hits’ to DNA are necessary to cause cancer. This requirement for an accumulation of mutations explains the increased risk of cancer with age, as a consequence of the increased time available to acquire a mutation, and explains the documented increased cancer incidence in our population, as we live longer. The genes most commonly affected are involved in the biological processes that are recognised as the six ‘hallmarks’ of cancer: sustaining proliferative signalling; evading growth suppressors; activating invasion and metastasis; enabling replicative immortality; inducing angiogenesis and resisting cell death. More recently, this model has been updated to include several other factors.

For more in-depth discussion of the vast literature on cancer biology, the reader is recommended to consult one of the many excellent textbooks on the topic (see ‘Further reading’ section). The discussion below examines examples of biochemical aspects of cancer associated with gain-of-function mutations in certain proto-oncogenes (i.e. genes that when altered by mutation contribute to cancer) and how loss-of-function of tumour suppressor genes, which normally suppress growth, can be linked to cancer.

Chronic myeloid leukaemia

Chronic myeloid leukaemia (CML) is a rare leukaemia which starts in the bone marrow, the sponge-like tissue inside bones, where blood cell formation starts. It almost exclusively affects adults during or after middle age, and progresses slowly from a chronic phase, which can last several years, to an acute phase and blast crisis, which can be fatal. In CML, a chromosomal translocation (i.e. a swap of DNA sequences on different chromosomes) results in changes to chromosomes 9 and 22. Part of chromosome 22, at a region known as the break-point cluster region (BCR), becomes fused to the ABL gene from chromosome 9, creating what is referred to as the Philadelphia chromosome, named after the city of its discovery, and the BCR-ABL protein. This genetic change in the myeloid stem cells of the bone marrow, which normally develops into granulocytes (basophils, neutrophils and eosinophils), results in overproduction of abnormal cells of this type, and there is less room for formation of other blood cell types (red cells, platelets and white blood cells). As a result patients may have anaemia, weight loss, easy bleeding and abdominal pain due to an enlarged spleen.

The human ABL gene encodes a non-receptor tyrosine kinase. This is an enzyme which can transfer a phosphate group from ATP to the amino acid tyrosine in substrate proteins. In response to extracellular signals such as growth factors or cytokines, ABL is activated to stimulate complex cell signalling pathways involved in cell proliferation and survival. The ABL protein is composed of several functional domains (compact folded units within a protein) including the kinase domain which has catalytic activity, and normally cellular activity of ABL is low. Protein structural studies by X-ray crystallography have revealed that activity is held in check by an auto-inhibition mechanism, in which a lipid moiety (myristate) that is covalently attached to a sequence near the start of the protein (i.e. the N-terminus) loops around and is inserted into the kinase domain, to keep the enzyme in an inactive state. This auto-inhibition mechanism is lost from the BCR-ABL protein, because the important N-terminal amino acid sequence in ABL is replaced by a sequence from the BCR gene, resulting in a constitutively active (i.e. constantly active) form of the kinase that causes cellular changes leading to leukaemia.

A number of inhibitors of the BCR-ABL tyrosine kinase have been developed which are highly useful clinically for treating this leukaemia, the first of which was Imatinib (Gleevec). This successful therapeutic approach, which is often regarded as the first targeted cancer therapy, has given rise to the development of many other kinase inhibitors for other cancers (e.g. breast cancer, melanoma) and inflammatory diseases (e.g. rheumatoid arthritis).

Epidermal growth factor receptor and related family members

The biochemistry of the epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor and related family members, provides a useful example of how a cell surface protein can respond to an extracellular biomolecule signal and convey that message to the interior of a cell to regulate cell proliferation or invasion. This pathway is of particular relevance to a discussion of cancer, since it is known that a substantial number of tumours carry gene amplifications that lead to elevated EGF receptor levels, or deletions or point mutations. The EGF family of receptors consists of four closely related receptor tyrosine kinases: ErbB1 (EGF-R, HER1), ErbB2 (HER2, Neu), ErbB3 (HER3) and ErbB4 (HER4). The receptors are activated following binding of a ligand (EGF or other ligands) and dimerisation. Dimerisation refers to the process whereby receptor proteins pair up with one another to form homodimers (i.e. a receptor pair formed of the same type of receptors) or heterodimers (i.e. a receptor pair formed of different receptors). Variations to this process are found with HER2 which has no known ligand and HER3 lacks kinase activity, but both have important cell signalling functions via the heterodimers they form. Following dimerisation, the close proximity of the two receptor molecules allows the kinase of one molecule of the pair to phosphorylate the other on specific tyrosine amino acids (a process referred to as transphosphorylation). Subsequently, signalling proteins associate with the phosphorylated receptor initiate a cascade of signalling events culminating in activation of transcription factors in the nucleus and changes in gene expression regulating cell growth and proliferation ( Figure 4 ). The pathway is tightly regulated by processes that ‘switch off’ signalling, such as phosphatases (enzymes that cleave phosphate from their substrate), and degradation of the receptor.

MAPK affects the activity of transcription factors via phosphorylation. Abbreviations: Grb2, growth factor receptor-bound protein 2; MAPK, mitogen-activated protein kinase; MEK, a mitogen activated protein kinase kinase; Raf, a serine/threonine protein kinase activated by Ras; Ras, a small GTPase protein; Sos, Son of Sevenless (a nucleotide exchange factor).

The HER2 gene is amplified in approximately 30% of human breast cancers. The resulting overexpression of this protein, often at levels 10–100-times above normal, can drive spontaneous dimerisation via mass-action effects, and activation of cell signalling pathways linked to growth, division and protection from programmed cell death (apoptosis), to stimulate the malignant phenotype. Other mutations or truncations in EGF receptor family proteins can cause ligand-independent activation of the receptor. A variety of clinically useful monoclonal antibodies, and small molecule kinase inhibitors, have been developed against EGF receptor family proteins with the intent of treating tumours that exhibit high-level expression of the receptors. The monoclonal antibody trastuzumab (Herceptin) is an anti-HER2 antibody that has resulted in an extension of lifespan for breast cancer patients, and has been approved for treatment of gastric carcinomas that overexpress HER2. Its precise mechanism of action is not entirely clear but it is thought to involve ‘tagging’ HER2 expressing cells and essentially marking them for elimination by cytotoxic cells of the immune system.

Tumour suppressor p53

Growth promoting genes, such as those discussed above, represent only part of the story of cellular growth control, with the other part consisting of genes that suppress uncontrolled growth and are called tumour suppressor genes. There are many genes in this category (e.g. RB1, BRCA1, BRCA2, PTEN ); however, the TP53 gene and its product, the p53 protein, plays such a key role as a tumour suppressor it is often referred to as ‘the guardian of the genome’. Studies of cancer cell genomes from a wide range of tumours indicate that p53 is the gene found to be most frequently mutated. In normal healthy cells the levels of p53 are low but expression is increased in response to cell stresses such as radiation, certain chemotherapeutic drugs, DNA damage, low oxygen tension (hypoxia) and oncogene signalling. The p53 protein is a transcription factor and activates genes involved in: arrest of the cell cycle (i.e. the series of events that regulate cell division and DNA replication); DNA repair; blocking angiogenesis (i.e. blood vessel formation) and apoptosis (i.e. programmed cell death). Overall, when cells detect damage or abnormal functioning, they send signals to p53 which acts by halting cell proliferation or triggering apoptosis. Thus the absence of p53 in a tumour cell will permit the survival of cells that are accumulating mutations and allow tumour development.

A few of the many important genes that are induced by p53 to exert tumour suppressing activities are p21, Bcl-2 related genes, XPC and TSP-1 (thrombospondin). Induction of the p21 gene inhibits cyclin-dependent kinases, which are involved in the cycle process, resulting in arrest of the cell cycle at the first checkpoint (i.e. transition from G 1 preparation for DNA synthesis to S phase DNA synthesis). This allows the cell to repair DNA damage. If successful, the cell proceeds into S phase; if not, apoptosis pathways are activated. Pro-apoptotic members of the Bcl-2 family of genes are induced by p53 and these outcompete anti-apoptotic family members. The intracellular site of action of these proteins is the mitochondria and apoptosis is triggered by opening of pores in the mitochondrial membrane, allowing the contents to spill out. Induction of the XPC gene by p53 increases the cell’s ability to locate and repair DNA damage, while induction of the thrombospondin gene, an inhibitor of new blood vessel formation, prevents cancerous cells from developing a blood supply during early tumour development.

How many types of cancer?

More than 200 different types of cancer have been documented based on their cell type of origin in the body (as above); however, defining distinct diseases is complex as recent studies have shown. Analysis of the genetic profile of more than 1500 patients with the blood cancer, AML indicated that they could be grouped into 11 distinct classes each with specific diagnostic features and clinical outcomes. On the other hand, analysis of 11000 tumours from 33 of the most prevalent forms of cancer, by The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) consortium, has revealed that cancers with different tissue or cell origins are genetically similar. These findings may provide the basis for new therapeutic strategies.

Microorganisms

Cholera is an acute diarrhoeal illness that kills approximately 100000 people worldwide each year. The World Health Organisation reported in 2018 that the outbreak of cholera in Yemen is the largest and fastest spreading outbreak of the disease in modern history, with more than a million people affected. The disease is caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae and spread by consuming contaminated water and food polluted with sewage (the faeco-oral route). It typically affects regions where there is overcrowded housing and water and sanitation are poor, or where conflict or a natural disaster have led to collapse of the water, sanitation and the healthcare systems. In 1854 the physician John Snow traced an outbreak of cholera in London to a water pump in Soho, which was taking sewage-polluted water from the Thames, and established the water-borne nature of the disease.

In the small intestine of affected individuals, V. cholerae secretes a toxin (referred to as exotoxin) consisting of an active A subunit attached to a ring of five B subunits. The B subunits bind to a cell surface receptor (ganglioside receptor GM1 (GM1)) on the epithelial cells lining the gut ( Figure 5 ). The receptor–toxin complex is endocytosed and transported to the endoplasmic reticulum where the A subunit dissociates from the B subunit to enter the cytosol. The A subunit has enzymatic activity and transfers ADP-ribose from NAD + to a protein guanine nucleotide-binding protein (or G protein) called Gs (stimulatory G protein), that is a part of the signalling pathway in mammalian cells that some hormones use. Normally in this pathway, a hormone binds to a G-protein-coupled receptor which activates the G protein (composed of three different subunits: α, β and γ) causing exchange of GDP for GTP on the α subunit. The GTP-bound α subunit then activates the enzyme adenylate cyclase leading to production of cAMP. The cycle is switched off by the G protein α subunit itself which has a built-in enzymatic GTPase activity (i.e. it converts GTP into GDP). The cholera toxin ADP-ribosylation of the Gs α subunit irreversibly inhibits the intrinsic GTPase of the Gs, locking it in the active state, leading to a sustained activation of adenylate cyclase and a dramatic increase in cAMP levels within the cell. The cAMP activates cAMP-dependent protein kinase (protein kinase A, PKA) which phosphorylates and stimulates the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR), a channel protein in the plasma membrane, leading to changes in the electrolyte balance across the cell membrane. There is an increase in chloride and bicarbonate movement out of the cell, a decrease in sodium influx and a corresponding movement of water molecules into the lumen of the gut, and net fluid loss causing watery diarrhoea. It is interesting to note that another bacterial toxin (pertussis toxin causative factor of Whooping cough) functions by a similar mechanism, albeit with different cell types affected.

Cholera exotoxin (a toxin released by the bacterium V. cholerae ). See text for a description of the process. Abbreviations: AC, adenylate cyclase; R, G-protein-coupled receptor.

Treatment for cholera is relatively cheap and simple. A simple rehydration solution prepared with boiled or bottled water is used to replace lost fluids and electrolytes. In severe cases, fluid via the intravenous route may also be required. In addition, cholera vaccines are available which offer some degree of protection; antibiotics may also be used in severe cases to reduce disease duration. It is interesting to note that the cystic fibrosis gene, in which there is dysfunction of the CFTR leading to production of thick mucus, may have survived evolutionary pressure because it gives resistance to cholera.

HIV, is the virus that causes AIDS. It results in a profound weakening of the immune system leaving patients vulnerable to other infections and complications. Since its first description in the early 1980s, it has claimed more than 35 million lives and more than 37 million people are living with HIV around the world. There is currently no cure but effective antiretroviral drugs can control the virus and prevent transmission. Wider access to these drugs and HIV prevention programmes have reduced HIV-related deaths and new infections to their lowest point in over two decades. Here, biochemical aspects of how the HIV virus penetrates a living host cell and uses the host’s metabolic machinery to replicate are discussed.

HIV is a retrovirus (i.e. it contains a reverse transcriptase enzyme that can synthesise DNA from viral RNA). Two forms of the virus, HIV-1 and HIV-2, are known and both cause immunosuppression but it is the HIV-1 strain that is most frequently occurring and virulent. The virus infects cells of the host’s immune system, specifically CD4 + helper T cells lymphocytes, macrophages and dendritic cells that are normally involved in co-ordinating the immune response to a disease-causing organism. CD4 is a protein found on the surface of immune cells, and a viral envelope glycoprotein, termed as gp120, binds to CD4 to gain entry into cells. It cannot do this alone and an additional co-receptor is required for entry. One such co-receptor is a G-protein-coupled receptor named chemokine receptor type 5 (CCR5) that is normally a receptor for specific chemokines (i.e. small secreted protein molecules that play a role in directed movement of cells), namely MIP-1 and RANTES. Some strains of the virus are able to use a different chemokine receptor (CXCR4) together with CD4 for entry into cells ( Figure 6 ). HIV is not unique in its ability to exploit normal membrane receptors as a means to gain entry into cells and in fact a long list of viruses (e.g. rhinovirus, hepatitis C virus) use a variety of cell surface receptors to enter cells.

( A ) CCR5 serves as a co-receptor with CD4 to permit HIV entry. ( B ) The CCR5Δ32 variant produces a mutant protein that does not reach the cell surface and is non-functional as a co-receptor. See text for details.

The importance of CCR5 as a co-receptor in vivo has been demonstrated by the discovery of a genetic variant of the CCR5 gene, found in approximately 10% of Caucasians, that confers resistance to HIV infection. The CCR5 receptor, as with other members of the G-protein-coupled receptor family, is characterised by seven transmembrane spanning domains with the N-terminus outside the cell and the C-terminus inside the cell. The CCR5Δ32 variant of the gene contains a 32-bp deletion within the second extracellular loop that produces a frameshift mutation and premature stop codon, and consequently the mutant protein does not reach the cell surface and is retained within the cell in the endoplasmic reticulum, where it is non-functional, either as a chemokine receptor or HIV co-receptor. Individuals who are homozygous (i.e. have two copies) of the Δ32 variant are resistant to HIV infection, although may be susceptible to strains of the virus using a different co-receptor. A drug for treating HIV infection, maraviroc, which binds to the CCR5 receptor and blocks virus entry is used clinically.

Once inside the cell, the viral RNA is copied into double-stranded DNA by the viral enzyme reverse transcriptase. This is an error-prone enzyme resulting in the introduction of a large number of mutations into the viral genome, which leads to its ability to evade the human immune system. The virus-specific reverse transcriptase enzyme is a useful drug target for several important antiviral nucleotide analogues. These drugs are modified by the cell, and incorporated into the viral genome and ultimately block elongation of the DNA chain. In untreated cells, viral DNA is incorporated into the host DNA and subsequently transcribed and translated to form new virus particles that are released from the cell and initiate another round of infection.

Food is necessary to provide the body with energy and key biomolecules that are essential for normal body function. Disease may be associated with an excess intake of energy-rich foods, undernourishment or malnutrition. The components of food that are digested and absorbed by the body can be divided into macronutrients (carbohydrates, fats and proteins) that provide energy and micronutrients (vitamins and minerals) which do not provide energy, but are required in small amounts. An overview of biochemical aspects of nutrition is provided here, together with a focus on selected current issues and areas of interest.

The biochemical nature of macronutrients and their functions

The group of carbohydrate molecules includes sugars, starch and fibre. They can exist as monosaccharides (such as glucose and fructose), disaccharides (such as sucrose and lactose) and polysaccharides (such as starch, glycogen and cellulose). A disaccharide is formed from two monosaccharides linked together: one glucose and one fructose molecule in the case of sucrose (table sugar), and one glucose and one galactose molecule in the case of lactose (found in milk). Polysaccharides are composed of long chains of hundreds to thousands of monosaccharides in either a linear or highly branched structure. Starch, formed from a large number of glucose units, the most common form of carbohydrate in the human diet is derived from plants and is found in potatoes and cereals. Glycogen is a highly branched polymer of glucose that serves as an energy store in humans, mainly in liver and skeletal muscle, that can be quickly broken down to supply a need for glucose. Cellulose, a polysaccharide also formed from glucose units, is a structural component of the plant cell wall and is a component of dietary fibre. Although humans are unable to digest cellulose because of a lack of the appropriate enzymes to break the β-glycosidic bonds between the glucose units (α-glycosidic bonds are found in glycogen and starch), dietary fibre is important for healthy functioning of the digestive tract.

Dietary fat is mainly in the form of triglycerides, which are made up of three fatty acid molecules linked with one molecule of glycerol ( Figure 2 ). These fatty acids may vary in chain length, the presence or absence of double bonds within the chain (saturation) and the configuration of hydrogens at either side of the double bonds ( cis or trans ). The body can synthesise most fatty acids from carbohydrate or other fatty acids; however, two types of fatty acids (linoleic and α-linolenic) cannot be synthesised and a dietary source is required. These essential fatty acids are used in the synthesis of prostaglandins. Fat is stored in adipocytes (fat cells) within adipose tissue which is concentrated into characteristic areas of the body (such as beneath the skin and abdominal areas), and is an important energy source during prolonged exercise. Another molecule of note at this point is cholesterol, since both cholesterol and fats are categorised as lipid molecules (due to the fact they are water insoluble). Cholesterol is not used as an energy source but is an important component of cell membranes and as a precursor of hormones and bile salts (as discussed above). It may be obtained from dietary sources but is also synthesised by many cell types.

Proteins are a diverse group of biomolecules formed from a chain of amino acids. Dietary protein sources are meat, fish, eggs, nuts, dairy products and legumes (plants of the pea family). The thousands of proteins within the body have numerous biological functions and diverse structures. The majority of amino acids are obtained from digestion of dietary proteins; however, there are nine essential amino acids that cannot be synthesised by the body, and thus must be supplied in the diet. These are phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, methionine, leucine, isoleucine, lysine, valine and histidine.

Energy is required by every cell in the body, and it is through the metabolism of glucose, fatty acids and amino acids that ATP, the energy storage molecule, is generated. When required, glycogen is broken down to glucose-1-phosphate and subsequently converted into pyruvate by glycolysis. Pyruvate is then transported into the cytosol of mitochondria and converted into acetyl CoA releasing CO 2 and water in the process. Fatty acids and amino acids can also be converted into acetyl CoA. Acetyl CoA is the starting point for the citric acid cycle (also known as the tricarboxylic acid cycle or Krebs cycle), a series of chemical reactions which generate ATP and high-energy electrons that are quickly passed to the respiratory chain in the mitochondrial inner membrane. Here the last series of reactions, in a process termed as oxidative phosphorylation, generates more ATP as a supply of energy for the cell.

Disorders associated with macronutrients

Metabolic disorders associated with macronutrients may be linked to an excess intake of energy-rich foods, undernourishment, malnutrition, genetic errors in metabolic enzymes or adverse reactions to particular foods. The World Health Organisation have reported the massive scale of the problem of malnutrition in all its forms: 1.9 billion adults overweight or obese, 462 million underweight; 52 million children under 5 years of age are wasted (i.e. low weight for height) and 155 million have stunted growth. To tackle this problem, the United Nations declared a ‘Decade of Action on Nutrition’ from 2016–2025.

In many developing areas of the world, people are affected by malnutrition as a result of poverty, war or drought hindering access to the food supply. Severe protein-energy malnutrition has two forms: kwashiorkor and marasmus. Kwashiorkor typically occurs in a young child after a mother weans the child from breast milk and is often associated with an infection such as measles or diarrhoea. Weaning from breast milk causes a dietary change from a diet containing proteins, amino acids and fats to one consisting mainly carbohydrates. The symptoms of the disease are fluid build-up in tissues (oedema) leading to swelling of legs and ankles, dry skin rash, weakness and reddish orange discolouration of the hair. A characteristic symptom is a ‘pot belly’ or distended abdomen, as a result of abnormal fatty enlargement of the liver, and fluid build-up. Fluid build-up in tissues is due to deficient serum albumin plasma protein synthesis. A hydrostatic pressure gradient in capillaries pushes water into the tissues, and this fluid would normally be drawn back into the capillary by the osmotic pressure exerted by albumin. In kwashiorkor, low serum albumin leads to reduction in this effect leading to fluid build-up in tissues. The disorder can be treated by the gradual reintroduction of milk-based or specially formulated food products, but if untreated it is fatal.

Marasmus is a severe form of malnutrition in which there is inadequate caloric intake in all forms, including protein; in contrast with kwashiorkor where there is protein deficiency with adequate energy intake. It mostly commonly occurs in children but can affect adults. The condition is characterised by muscle wasting and loss of body fat, without the oedema of kwashiorkor, and is often accompanied by infections. Treatment is by gradual reintroduction of a balanced diet and the prognosis is better than for kwashiorkor.

There is a two-way relationship between nutrition and the human genome that determines disease risk. Just as diet can be a factor in disease for some individuals, genetic variation can lead to nutrition-linked disease, and in many cases nutrients can be considered ‘signalling molecules’ transmitting changes in gene, protein and metabolite expression that are associated with disease. Some of these relationships are discussed in the sections on atherosclerosis, obesity, alcoholic-liver disease and cancer. The conditions phenylketonuria (PKU) and lactose intolerance are examples of nutrient–gene interactions causing disease. PKU is a rare inherited disorder (affecting 1 in 10000 individuals) in which there is a mutation in the phenylalanine hydroxylase gene. This enzyme normally converts phenylalanine into tyrosine and mutations may lead to severely reduced levels of the enzyme, its complete absence or reduced enzyme activity leading to accumulation of phenylalanine, when untreated ( Figure 7 ). Untreated PKU can lead to mental retardation, behavioural problems, epilepsy, light skin pigmentation and jerking movements of arms and legs. The light skin colour is due to deficient melanin production, resulting from lower tyrosine levels. The condition can be diagnosed in newborns by a routine blood spot test and treatment consists of a low-protein diet with amino acid supplements. Another example of a single gene defect underlying a nutrition-related disease is that of lactose intolerance. The enzyme lactase produced by the mucosal cells of the gut breaks down the disaccharide lactose of dairy products to its monosaccharides (glucose and galactose), which are absorbed in the small intestine. In some individuals, a deficiency of this enzyme means that undigested lactose passes to the colon where it is digested by bacteria producing gas and other symptoms such as diarrhoea, flatulence and cramps.

A deficiency in the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase leads to PKU. Melanin is a natural skin pigment. l -DOPA is a precursor of the neurotransmitters dopamine, adrenaline and noradrenaline.

There are many other situations where dietary components or nutrients are associated with disease; where there is gastrointestinal disease that affects absorption of nutrients or where an eating disorder with a psychological basis affects nutrient intake. For example: peanut allergy, alcoholic liver disease, gastric ulcers and inflammatory conditions such as ulcerative colitis and inflammatory bowel disease and anorexia nervosa; however, coverage of these conditions is beyond the scope of this article. Coeliac disease is an interesting example of an inflammatory disease of the gastrointestinal tract involving dietary proteins, genetic factors and the immune system. It affects approximately 1% of the population and in genetically susceptible individuals it is triggered by the ingestion of proline- and glutamine-rich proteins that are found in wheat, rye and barley, and are termed as ‘glutens’. In wheat, the specific proteins are glutenins and gliadins. Because of its high proline content the gluten is only partially digested to a number of large gluten peptides. These peptides cross the epithelial mucosa barrier of the gut to the underlying lamina propria where some are modified by a tissue transglutaminase enzyme. Presentation of these peptides by specific HLA molecules (human leucocyte antigens are cell-surface protein responsible for regulating the immune response) on antigen presenting cells activates T cells to produce inflammatory cytokines, particularly interferon γ. This starts an inflammatory cascade which leads to a loss of the villi on the surface of the small intestine resulting in a flattened surface characteristic of the disease, which has a reduced capacity to absorb nutrients. Most individuals respond to treatment with a ‘gluten-free’ diet.

Overview of micronutrients

The term micronutrient encompasses vitamins and minerals that are required in small amounts by the body. Essential vitamins cannot be synthesised by the body and must be obtained from dietary sources. However, a few vitamins are produced by bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract (e.g. Vitamin K) and others can be synthesised from precursor molecules (e.g . Vitamin D from 7-dehydrocholesterol; niacin from tryptophan; vitamin A from β-carotene). The 13 recognised vitamins can be divided into biomolecules that are fat-soluble and those that are water-soluble. The fat-soluble vitamins are often stored in adipose tissue, while there is no storage of most water-soluble vitamins and a daily dietary supply is required. Vitamins have diverse roles as hormones (vitamin D), signalling molecules (vitamin A) and as coenzymes, combining with enzymes to facilitate a range of biochemical enzymatic processes ( Table 2 ). A coenzyme that is tightly or covalently bound to an enzyme is termed a prosthetic group. These coenzymes often function in the mechanism of catalysis by acting as donors of specific chemical groups or electrons.

Each vitamin’s name often refers to several related compounds (e.g. Vitamin A refers to retinol, retinal, retinoic acid). Only one biomolecule is named here for simplicity. Dietary sources of vitamins and values for the recommended daily intake are widely available in other texts (see ‘Further reading’ section).

Deficiency of a micronutrient leading to disease may be a consequence of inadequate dietary intake, insufficient absorption from the gastrointestinal tract as a result of disease, liver disease, lack of exposure to sunlight or changes to the gut microflora due to antibiotic use. Deficiency diseases are summarised in Table 2 .

Minerals are inorganic nutrients and the daily requirement ranges from grams to micrograms. The major minerals are sodium, calcium, chloride, potassium, magnesium and phosphorus, while others such as iron, iodine, cobalt, copper, manganese, molybdenum, manganese and zinc are referred to as trace elements. They are involved in diverse functions in the body, some of which are given in Table 3 .

Numerous other trace metals are also required but are not listed.

Vitamin supplements

Vitamin supplements are used by millions of individuals worldwide; however, for most healthy population groups they provide no benefit, as a healthy balanced diet provides the required vitamins and minerals (some of which may be obtained through fortification of food). On the other hand, there is good evidence that certain vitamin supplements may be beneficial for specific population groups (the elderly, pregnant mothers and children aged between 6 months and 5 years). More information is available on the NHS website and the NIH Office of Dietary Supplements website (see ‘Further reading’ section). A number of large-scale randomised trials have also shown that multivitamin use not only provides no benefit to the majority of the population but long-term use may have harmful effects.

Vitamin D deficiency

Structure and synthesis.

Vitamin D is in fact a family of steroid hormones that may be obtained from the diet or made via the actions of UV light in the skin, and it is known to play a role in regulating levels of calcium and phosphate in the body and bone mineralisation. Cholecalciferol (vitamin D 3 ) is synthesised from 7-dehydrocholesterol by UV irradiation of the skin, through exposure to sunlight ( Figure 8 ). Vitamin D 3 can also be synthesised from ergocalciferol (vitamin D 2 ), which is in turn derived from dietary ergosterol in plants. Vitamin D 3 is converted into its most potent form 1,25 dihydroxy-vitamin D 3 (calcitriol) by sequential enzymatic hydroxylation reactions in the liver and kidney. The 1α hydroxylation step in the kidney is stimulated by parathyroid hormone, a decrease in plasma phosphate levels and inhibited via a negative feedback mechanism involving calcitriol itself. Vitamin D 3 , and its hydroxylated metabolites, are hydrophobic molecules and are transported in the blood bound to specific globulin proteins (vitamin D-binding protein). As a fat-soluble vitamin,vitamin D is stored by the body in adipose tissue which acts as a reservoir for periods when dietary intake or UV-synthesised sources are insufficient.

See text for details. Abbreviation: VDR, vitamin D receptor.

The main actions of calcitriol are to stimulate intestinal calcium and phosphate uptake, increase bone calcium resorption and reduce loss of calcium by the kidney. These are not the only effects of calcitriol and it is now recognised that the hormone has many other important effects in many cell types including some anti-inflammatory and immune-modulating properties.

The bones of the human skeleton are continuously being remodelled throughout life by a process of resorption and new bone formation. Bone consists of an organic matrix (osteoid), primarily composed of collagen, in which calcium phosphate crystals in the form of hydroxyapatite are deposited, to create the hard bone matrix. Osteoblasts, osteoclasts and osteocytes are key cell types involved in bone remodelling. Although calcitriol promotes bone calcium mobilisation, its overall effect is complex involving indirect stimulation of osteoclasts, decreased collagen synthesis by osteoblasts, but the net effect is to restore bone formation.

Deficiency disease

Deficiency of vitamin D results in defects in bone mineralisation leading to rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults. Rickets is characterised by growth retardation and bone deformities such as bow legs; and osteomalacia by softening of the bone, widespread bone pain and muscle weakness. The deficiency may be caused by poor dietary intake of vitamin D, inadequate exposure to sunlight, malabsorption and liver or renal disease resulting in ineffective formation of calcitriol. Also vitamin D deficiency is prevalent in obese individuals due to a defect in hormone storage. Osteoporosis is a disease characterised by a reduction in bone density leading to an increased risk of fractures, and is a major health issue in the elderly population. Bone density declines after midlife and the rate of loss accelerates in women after menopause due to loss of oestrogen. Vitamin D insufficiency is also often a contributing factor. Vitamin D replacement and calcium supplementation are a key part of treatment options for these conditions.

In addition to bone diseases, vitamin D deficiency has been linked with other conditions such as multiple sclerosis (MS). MS is a T cell-mediated chronic autoimmune disease leading to destructive demeylination of neurons. Symptoms are broad depending on which part of the nervous system is affected. Both genetic and environmental factors are thought to underlie the disease and epidemiological studies have identified a geographical disease distribution in which there is an increased incidence at latitudes further from the equator. A lack of exposure to the sun in early childhood and the consequent deficiency of vitamin D is thought to account for this. Several studies have shown that vitamin D has immunomodulatory effects on immune cells (B cells, T cells, macrophages) which may well be linked to MS risk.

Actions at molecular level

At molecular and cellular levels, calcitriol produces its effects by binding to its cytoplasmic target receptor (vitamin D receptor, VDR) ( Figure 8 ). The receptor is a member of the nuclear receptor family (also known as ligand-activated transcription factors), which also includes receptors for steroid hormones (e.g. oestrogen, cortisol) and other fat-soluble vitamins such as vitamin A. The VDR forms a heterodimer with the retinoid X receptor (RXR) and this complex translocates to the nucleus where it binds to hormone response elements on DNA to regulate gene expression. In the intestinal epithelium it up-regulates the gene for the calcium channel ( TRPV6 ), intracellular transporter calbindin D and a calcium pump to increase calcium uptake.

Vitamin K and bleeding disorders

Vitamin K occurs in two biologically active forms – vitamin K 1 (phylloquinone) and vitamin K 2 (menaquinones). Both have a common ring structure (2‐methyl‐1,4‐naphthoquinone, also called menadione) and differ from each other in the length and saturation of the polyisoprenoid carbon chain attached at the 3 position. Vitamin K 1 is abundant in leafy green vegetables (e.g. kale, spinach) while vitamin K 2 is synthesised in various forms by bacteria present in the human intestine, and is also present in small amounts in fermented foods. Vitamin K is fat soluble and is absorbed with dietary lipids. It has an important function as a cofactor involved in formation of the active form of clotting factors involved in the coagulation cascade (factors II, VII, IX and X), and proteins involved in bone formation (osteocalcin). The reduced form of vitamin K acts a cofactor for the enzyme γ-glutamyl carboxylase which carboxylates glutamate residues in proteins, a modification which is required for calcium binding ( Figure 9 ). During the reaction vitamin K is oxidised to its epoxide form and the enzyme vitamin K epoxide reductase complex 1 (VKORC1) converts it back again into its reduced form. The anticoagulant drug warfarin prevents blood clotting by inhibiting the VKORC1 enzyme, reducing recycling of vitamin K, and consequently the active form of blood-clotting factors ( Figure 9 ). Deficiency of vitamin K in adults is rare but may occur as a consequence of disorders of bile flow (cholestatic jaundice) disrupting fat absorption or broad-spectrum oral antibiotic use which kills the gut microflora. In newborn babies, particularly premature infants, deficiency and consequently bleeding is a particular risk. Deficiency arises because placental transfer of vitamin K is poor, there is little vitamin K in breast milk and the gut of the newborn is essentially sterile restricting bacterial synthesis. As a consequence of the risk of bleeding in vitamin K deficient infants, supplementation is recommended shortly after birth.

See text for details.

The worldwide prevalence of obesity is reaching epidemic proportions. Over the past four decades, the prevalence of adult obesity has nearly quadrupled, with nearly 40% of the worldwide population classed as overweight, and rising numbers of children and adolescents affected. Once thought of as a problem of the developed world it is now also on the rise in low- and middle-income countries. The fundamental cause of obesity and overweight is an excess caloric intake coupled with a low level of physical activity; however, there are multiple contributing factors, some of which are discussed below. Being overweight, or obese, is defined as a disproportionate body weight for height and is generally calculated using the body mass index (BMI) (body mass (kg)/height (m) 2 ), although this measure is recognised to be imprecise. The WHO classification defines normal values for BMI as 18.5–24.9 kg/m 2 ; overweight as 25–29.9 kg/m 2 and obese as ≥30 kg/m 2 .

Body weight, and consequently obesity, is determined by the complex interplay of energy intake and expenditure, psychosocial factors, genetic factors and by the body’s neural and endocrine systems. Since these aspects have been widely reviewed elsewhere (see ‘Further reading’ section), this section focuses on the interplay of environment and genetic factors, epigenetics, and some recent developments in understanding fat storage in adipocytes and pathological changes.

Studies examining the genetic basis of obesity in the wider population have identified hundreds of gene variants that are linked to obesity through physiological processes such as regulation of appetite control and energy metabolism, indicating that obesity is a polygenic disorder (i.e. it is associated with the effect of multiple genes), in combination with lifestyle and environmental factors. There are, however, a few very rare single gene variants that can underlie obesity. These genes include the leptin receptor gene ( LEPR ) which encodes for a hormone that is involved in long-term regulation of energy balance and suppressing food intake, and the melanocortin receptor 4 gene ( MC4R ) which is a receptor for the neurotransmitter α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH) in the hypothalamus of the brain, a region that controls appetite. It is clear that genes and the environment interact in complex ways to determine body weight variability. One interesting example comes from a study comparing genetically similar Pima Indians living either a traditional lifestyle in the Sierra Madre region of Mexico or in urban environments of Arizona with a westernised lifestyle. The levels of obesity in male U.S. Pima was almost ten-times higher than their Mexican counterparts, and similarly Type 2 diabetes was also five-times higher. The Mexican Pima have a high level of physical activity and a simple low-fat diet that is high in fibre; and certain genes may provide a protective or survival advantage in this environment when food is scarce. In westernised environmental conditions (low physical activity and diet high in fat and refined sugars), genetically the Pima have a predisposition to obesity although this is not inevitable and can be prevented by lifestyle change.

Another example of genetic and environmental interactions is provided by studies of medical records from the Dutch Hunger Winter in 1944. During the German occupation of the Netherlands, people were exposed to a period of severe famine and this was alleviated following liberation in May 1945. Babies born to mothers exposed to famine in mid to late gestation had a lower birth weight, remained small throughout their lives, despite the availability of food, and had lower obesity rates than the general population. On the other hand, babies born to mothers exposed to famine during the early gestational period had a normal birth weight, presumably because the fetus was able to ‘catch up’ in the later stages of development, but had higher obesity rates than normal later in life. Surprisingly some of these effects were also apparent in the grandchildren of the women who were malnourished. This intergenerational study indicates that nutritional deprivation can have long-lasting non-genetic effects on the body weight of offspring. It is thought that these changes are passed down via chemical modifications of DNA such as methylation, rather than sequence changes, which subsequently affect gene expression. Such changes are referred to as epigenetic modifications of the genome.

Recently much attention has been focused on the gut microbiota (i.e. the microrganisms resident in the gut) and links to obesity. Studies have demonstrated that the microbiota of individuals with obesity is less diverse than individuals with a normal weight. Also studies of the microbiota of twins discordant for obesity (i.e. they have a significant BMI difference) have demonstrated that the metabolic phenotype (i.e. normal or obese) could be transmitted to germ-free mice by transplanting the human faecal microbiota. The basis for the differential effects of microbiota on body weight are unclear but may be due to differences in microbial metabolism of fibre or other nutrients.

Adipocytes have important roles in both energy storage and as endocrine cells (i.e. they are able to secrete hormones and other factors). The storage function involves taking up fatty acids absorbed following a meal, or produced from glucose by the liver, and storing them as triglycerides. These long-term energy stores are broken down to release fatty acids during fasting or prolonged or intense exercise. The endocrine function involves sensing energy storage and releasing hormones such as leptin and adiponectin. Leptin reduces food intake and activates pathways causing lipolysis; while adiponectin improves insulin sensitivity, promoting glucose uptake, and ultimately fat accumulation when there is additional storage capacity. During periods of overnutrition the adipocytes increase in size and number to accommodate the need for fat storage; however, at a certain point the maximum capacity is reached and the stressed or damaged adipocytes start an inflammatory process that contributes to the health problems linked to obesity. The location of adipose deposits may either be abdominal, as typically seen in obese men, or subcutaneously in buttocks and thighs. These body shapes are often referred to as ‘apple-shaped’ or ‘pear-shaped’, and it is recognised that the former (excess abdominal fat) is more associated with a disease risk than other distributions.

Various mechanisms have been proposed as the trigger of the inflammatory response in adipose tissue that leads to increased production of the pro-inflammatory cytokines tumour necrosis factor α (TNFα) and interleukin 6 (IL-6). These include: a lack of oxygen supply to the adipose tissue (hypoxia), death of the stressed adipocytes leading to influx of monocytes which are transformed into resident macrophages that secrete the inflammatory cytokines; and mechanical stresses as the adipocytes interact with the dense extracellular matrix that they are embedded within.

Obesity is a major risk factor for conditions such as Type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, certain types of cancer, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and several other diseases. Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease is due to excess fatty acids being deposited in the liver which normally contains little or no fat. This condition can develop into more serious hepatitis and cirrhosis leading to liver failure. Obesity-associated cancer may be driven by the high levels of insulin and insulin-related growth factors, the chronic inflammatory environment or in the case of breast and ovarian cancers, by the fact the adipose tissue produces oestrogen, which can stimulate abnormal cell growth.

Liver disease

Alcoholic liver disease.

Excessive alcohol intake is a common cause of liver disease and is associated with an increased risk of cancers and cardiovascular disease. The liver sustains the largest degree of tissue injury because it is the primary site of alcohol metabolism. Since the liver has the capacity to regenerate, symptoms of liver damage may not be apparent until damage is quite extensive. There are three main categories of alcohol-related liver damage: alcoholic fatty liver disease, alcoholic hepatitis and cirrhosis. The first category, a build-up of fat in the liver, occurs in almost all heavy drinkers and can occur even after a single drinking session. It is usually reversible on stopping drinking, and there are rarely any long-term symptoms. The second category, alcoholic hepatitis, which is distinct from infectious hepatitis, most often occurs in people who drink heavily over many years. It is characterised by inflammation of the liver with destruction of liver cells and some replacement of healthy tissue with scar tissue (known as fibrosis). This is a serious and life-threatening condition. Symptoms may include jaundice, nausea and vomiting, weight loss and fatigue. The more advanced form of the disease (cirrhosis) in which there is extensive fibrosis, in turn leads to liver failure and is often fatal. In addition to the liver, consumption of alcohol during pregnancy can have adverse effects on the developing foetus, referred to as foetal alcohol syndrome which is characterised by growth impairment, mental retardation and facial abnormalities.

Alcohol is metabolised in the liver by the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase to acetaldehyde, and in turn this is metabolised by aldehyde dehydrogenase to acetate, which is released into the bloodstream. Both reactions use NAD + as a cofactor, generating its reduced form NADH in the process. An alternative metabolic pathway is the enzyme cytochrome P450 2E1 (CYP2E1). Although this enzymatic pathway is considerably less efficient than alcohol dehydrogenase, because it is an inducible enzyme its role becomes more important in heavy drinkers due to its enhanced expression levels. This pathway also contributes to the development of tolerance (i.e. increasing levels of alcohol consumption are required to achieve the same effect). The enhanced generation of NADH by both enzymes increases the NADH/NAD + ratio in liver hepatocytes, altering the cellular redox potential (i.e. balance of reactions involving reduction and oxidation) which favours formation of fatty acids and reduces gluconeogenesis ( Figure 10 ). The enhanced formation of fatty acids is also due to an increase in expression of lipogenic enzymes, via effects on transcription factors, and conversion of acetate into acetyl CoA, a precursor for fatty acid synthetic reactions. Reduced gluconeogenesis can be explained as follows. Following conversion of glucose into pyruvate, during glycolysis, with the associated reduction of NAD + to NADH, pyruvate is converted into lactate with the oxidation of NADH to NAD + . This latter reaction is promoted by the increased NADH/NAD + ratio following ethanol metabolism resulting in reduced availability of pyruvate for gluconeogenesis. This effect together with poor nutrition contributes to the hypoglycaemia which is common in alcoholics.

Excessive alcohol intake also leads to inflammation of the liver (hepatitis). Inflammation occurs following activation of the macrophage immune cells that are normally residing in the liver, and infiltration of further macrophages. Normally the resident macrophages (Kupffer cells) provide a protective role against foreign pathogens; however, excessive alcohol exposure switches them to a pro-inflammatory state. Deposition of connective tissue (fibrosis) is also seen in liver cirrhosis. This stiffens blood vessels and damages the internal structure of the liver leading to severe complications and liver failure. Liver transplantation is an established procedure to remove an unhealthy liver and replace it with a healthy one from a donor. The procedure may be used for treatment of a number of liver diseases. A healthy liver may be obtained from an organ donor after death or, in some cases, part of liver may be obtained from a living donor, often a family member or friend.

Neurological/neurodegenerative

Alzheimer’s disease.

Alzheimer’s disease is the most common neurodegenerative disease. It affects approximately 10% of the population over age 65 and 30% of individuals aged 85 or older. There are also much rarer cases in younger individuals (mean age: ∼45 years) that are often associated with an inherited form of the disease. Increasing age, genetics and head trauma are all recognised as risk factors for the disease. As with other forms of dementia, the symptoms may include impairment of memory, language, reasoning and visual perception.

The most widely accepted hypothesis for the molecular basis of Alzheimer’s disease is centred around β-amyloid peptides ( Figure 11 ). In this pathway, β-amyloid is generated from amyloid precursor protein (APP) via sequential proteolysis by the proteases β-secretase and γ-secretase. The β-amyloid peptides of 40–42 amino acids in length spontaneously form aggregates which go on to form fibres that are deposited in plaques outside neurons in the brain. Deposition of these plaques is a characteristic of Alzheimer’s disease and it is these events that lead to neuronal degeneration and cognitive decline. Within neurons, the microtubule-associated protein τ becomes modified and forms aggregates that go on to form intracellular tangles (neurofibrillary tangles), a process leading to cell death. These plaques and tangles spread throughout the brain in a predictable pattern, typically originating in the hippocampus, limbic system, frontal and temporal lobes, and then progressing to other areas of the cortex in advanced disease.

The above hypothesis is supported by strong evidence from studies of genetic mutations in patients with early-onset Alzheimer’s disease. Mutations in the genes for APP and presenilins 1 and 2 (PSEN1, PSEN2) have been identified in many of these patients. The γ-secretase is known to be a complex of presenilins 1 and 2 and other proteins. These mutations are associated with an increased production of Aβ42 (the 42-amino acid β-amyloid peptide) that is more prone to aggregate and form plaques. Also in Down’s syndrome patients, where there is an extra copy of chromosome 21, which carries the APP gene, there is increased production of APP and these individuals all develop Alzheimer’s like disease. Conversely, a mutation in the APP gene has been identified that decreases APP production and provides a protective effect against development of Alzheimer’s disease.

Population studies have identified that the apoliprotein E4 ( APOE4 ) gene is a risk factor for developing Alzheimer’s disease. Three common polymorphisms of the APOE gene exist (E2, E3 and E4) and multiple copies of the APOE4 increases disease risk significantly and are associated with an earlier age of onset of Alzheimer’s disease. The ApoE protein is known to play an important role in lipid transport (see above section on ‘Atherosclerosis’). Its role in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease is not clear but it is thought to have an effect on β-amyloid deposition and clearance, and ultimately plaque formation.

There are currently no effective cures, or even treatments that significantly inhibit the progression of the disease, although some treatments may temporarily improve the behavioural problems. One class of approved drugs known as ‘cholinesterase inhibitors’, act by preventing the breakdown of the chemical messenger acetylcholine in the brain. Acetylcholine is important for learning and memory and the drugs slow the breakdown of this molecule, which may help to compensate for the loss of function brain cells. Another drug memantine, works by regulating the activity of the neurotransmitter glutamate, which in excess is thought to have cytotoxic effects linked to Alzheimer’s disease. Many clinical trials have investigated the use of inhbitors of β-secretase and γ-secretase as a means to reduce β-amyloid production and slow cognitive decline; however, to date the majority of these trials have not demonstrated beneficial effects of the drugs.

Abbreviations

1 A biomarker is a naturally occurring molecule, gene, measurable physiological characteristic or process that is an indicator of a particular disease state.

Competing interests

The author declares that there are no competing interests associated with the manuscript.

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Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Headlines

BMB Professor Michael Matunis Receives 2024 Shikani/El-Hibri Prize for Discovery and Innovation

The award recognizes Matunis' research on SUMO and a recent discovery of its role in protein quality control. 

Exploring Cancer’s Ancestral Links

BMB Assistant Professor Brittany Jenkins-Lord seeks clues in the lab and the community to understand the biological causes of cancer disparities.

Weeraratna Lab Research Highlight

New paper shows age-related stiffening of skin can alter growth and barrier function of blood vessels in melanoma tumors, contributing to metastasis

What We Do in the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology

Our Department strives to increase knowledge of cellular processes—normal and abnormal—at biochemical and molecular levels. We train highly qualified scientists who, through research, teaching, and service, continue to provide new insights into biomedical issues with a profound impact on public health.

Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Highlights

Founding department.

In 1917, we were the Department of Chemical Hygiene—our name has changed but not our drive for cutting-edge research.

Basic lab science with a public health perspective

Our research labs are uncovering the fundamental biochemical and molecular mechanisms at the foundations of health.

Teaching and training focus

We are committed to providing our students with training and mentoring so they can excel in a challenging but supportive environment.

From Cancer to CRISPR

Our faculty research—and teach—diverse topics across the breadth of biochemistry and molecular biology.

Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Programs

As a basic research department within the #1 public health school, the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology thrives at a unique intersection of basic science, medicine, and public health.

We offer a doctoral and two master’s degree programs. We are also part of an online interdepartmental Master of Arts in Public Health Biology.

Master of Science (ScM)

A two-year program providing training in cellular and molecular biology, blending coursework in the first year with extensive lab research experience

Master of Health Science (MHS)

MHS program focused on cellular and molecular biology at the intersection of biology, medicine, and public health, preparing students for a wide range of careers

Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

Our students are immersed in cutting-edge research in biochemistry and molecular biology, providing insights into biomedical issues impacting public health

Ashi Weeraratna, PhD,

studies how cancer cells move to distant sites and how changes in the normal cells around a tumor contribute to their movement, especially as we age.

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Department news.

The 2024 award recognizes Matunis' research on SUMO, specifically a recent discovery of its role in protein quality control. 

Complement in breast milk protects infant mice by shaping gut microbiota

Yang liu awarded target als springboard fellowship.

Liu, a postdoctoral fellow in the Wang lab, plans to extend his research into epigenetic regulation in ALS

Support Our Department

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Biochemistry News and Research

Biological condensates affect cellular behavior on a global scale

Most biological chemistry research has historically focused on the obvious cogs of machinery that keep life moving. Folding proteins, genetic activity and electrical signaling pathways are the easiest targets for finding irregularities that lead to disease.

QB3-led team awarded $12 million to explore autism origins with advanced models

A QB3-led team uniting researchers from the University of California campuses at Berkeley, San Francisco, and Santa Cruz was awarded a $12 million grant from the California Institute for Regenerative Medicine (CIRM) to investigate the origins of autism using sophisticated cellular models called "neural organoids."

Age-related fibroblast changes in males drive aggressive melanoma

Age-related changes in the fibroblasts, cells that create the skin's structure, contribute to the development of aggressive, treatment-resistant melanoma in males, according to research in mice by the Johns Hopkins Kimmel Cancer Center.

Discovery of cellular process could impact the understanding of cancer and aging

Researchers at UC Merced used fruit flies to uncover a cellular process common to many organisms that could dramatically impact the understanding of cancer and aging.

Lightly roasted coffee: Benefits for overweight individuals

Study found that consuming lightly roasted coffee rich in polyphenols significantly reduced body fat percentage and modestly increased muscle mass in overweight or obese individuals.

Innovative nickel tool enhances organic chemical reactions for drug creation

The invention of a tool capable of unlocking previously impossible organic chemical reactions has opened new pathways in the pharmaceutical industry to create effective drugs more quickly.

Study reveals neural processes behind morphine's pain relief

In a study published in Science, researchers at Karolinska Institutet describe the neural processes behind how morphine relieves pain. This is valuable knowledge because the drug has such serious side effects.

NSF funds UCSB-led Biofoundry to revolutionize biotechnology with unexplored microbes

This week, the National Science Foundation announced the award of a six-year, $22M grant to UC Santa Barbara under its biofoundries program for the establishment of the BioFoundry for Extreme and Exceptional Fungi, Archaea and Bacteria (ExFAB), a collaboration led by UC Santa Barbara (UCSB), together with UC Riverside (UCR), and Cal Poly Pomona (CPP). ExFAB establishes the nation's first biofoundry that focuses on largely untapped and unexplored extreme microbes. UCSB's award is one of only five grants made under NSF's BioFoundry program during this funding cycle, which awarded a total of $75M to the five selected universities.

Novel screening method for blood-brain barrier penetration

Scientists at Southwest Research Institute have developed a new screening method to identify drug formulations that can penetrate the blood-brain barrier (BBB), to facilitate treatment of brain diseases and conditions.

Mosquitoes detect infrared radiation for host seeking

While a mosquito bite is often no more than a temporary bother, in many parts of the world it can be scary. One mosquito species, Aedes aegypti, spreads the viruses that cause over 100,000,000 cases of dengue, yellow fever, Zika, and other diseases every year. Another, Anopheles gambiae, spreads the parasite that causes malaria. The World Health Organization estimates that malaria alone causes more than 400,000 deaths every year. Indeed, their capacity to transmit disease has earned mosquitoes the title of deadliest animal.

Cancer drug holds promise as a new treatment for neurodegenerative diseases

A type of drug developed for treating cancer holds promise as a new treatment for neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's, according to a recent study by researchers at Penn State, Stanford University and an international team of collaborators.

The critical role of PGK1 in Parkinson's disease

An enzyme called PGK1 has an unexpectedly critical role in the production of chemical energy in brain cells, according to a preclinical study led by researchers at Weill Cornell Medicine. The investigators found that boosting its activity may help the brain resist the energy deficits that can lead to Parkinson's disease.

Breakthrough compound targets appetite and tau protein in obesity and Alzheimer's

Scientists on the team of Dr Lenka Maletínská have developed a promising new compound derived from one of the peptides naturally occurring in the brain.

Leukemia cells depend on P-bodies for growth and survival

An international team of scientists has uncovered a mechanism by which acute myeloid leukemia (AML) cells sustain their growth.

Marine snail venom may inspire new diabetes and hormone disorder treatments

Scientists are finding clues for how to treat diabetes and hormone disorders in an unexpected place: a toxin from one of the most venomous animals on the planet.

New Springer textbook provides a comprehensive overview of aging science

A new textbook provides an overview on the present understanding of aging - from the basic biology of aging to age-related diseases and to the role of lifestyle and the environment.

New insights into COVID-19 spike protein offer hope for universal vaccines

A team led by Jose Onuchic at Rice University and Paul Whitford at Northeastern University, both researchers at the National Science Foundation Physics Frontiers Center at the Center for Theoretical Biological Physics (CTBP) at Rice, has made a discovery in the fight against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), the virus responsible for COVID-19.

New study reveals overlap between metabolic and immune disorders

Inherited diseases of metabolism and immunity have more in common than previously recognized, according to a new study published in the journal Science Immunology.

Uncovering the mechanisms behind bacterial cell shape and potential antibiotic targets

In what they labeled a "surprising" finding, Johns Hopkins Medicine researchers studying bacteria from freshwater lakes and soil say they have determined a protein's essential role in maintaining the germ's shape.

Study highlights benefits of exercise for both men and women

Females' and males' muscles differ in glucose and fatty acid handling – but regular physical activity quickly triggers similar beneficial metabolic changes in the muscles of both sexes, new research to be presented at this year's Annual Meeting of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD) (Madrid, 9-13 September) has found.

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Top 50 Biochemistry Project Topics [Updated]

Biochemistry is the cornerstone of comprehending life’s basic chemical processes within living organisms. With its interdisciplinary nature, biochemistry encompasses a vast array of topics, each offering unique insights into the intricacies of biological systems. In this blog, we’ll embark on a journey through various biochemistry project topics, shedding light on their significance and potential impact.

How To Select Biochemistry Project Topics?

Table of Contents

Selecting a biochemistry project topic can be an exciting yet daunting task. Here are some steps to help you navigate the process and choose the right topic for your interests and goals:

• Assess Your Interests and Goals: Start by reflecting on your interests within the field of biochemistry. Are you fascinated by metabolic pathways, molecular biology, or environmental biochemistry? Consider your long-term goals, whether they involve pursuing a career in research, academia, or industry.
• Explore Current Trends and Research Areas: Stay updated on the latest advancements and trends in biochemistry by reading scientific journals, attending seminars, and following researchers in the field. Identify emerging areas of interest or unresolved questions that intrigue you.
• Consider Your Skills and Resources: Evaluate your skills, background knowledge, and available resources when selecting a project topic. Select a topic that matches your skills and resources, ensuring it’s manageable within your time frame, equipment availability, and mentorship access.
• Consult with Mentors or Advisors: Seek guidance from professors, mentors, or advisors who can provide insight and advice on selecting a project topic. They can offer valuable perspectives based on their expertise and experience in the field.
• Brainstorm Potential Topics: Brainstorm a list of potential project topics based on your interests, goals, and the input you’ve gathered from mentors and advisors. Consider both broad topics and specific research questions that intrigue you.
• Narrow Down Your Options: Evaluate each potential topic based on factors such as its relevance, novelty, feasibility, and potential impact. Narrow down your options to a few promising topics that you feel passionate about and that align with your goals.
• Research Each Topic: Conduct preliminary research on each selected topic to gain a deeper understanding of the existing literature, key concepts, and potential research directions. Identify gaps or areas where further investigation is needed.
• Consider Collaborative Opportunities: Explore opportunities for collaboration with other researchers, laboratories, or institutions that may offer resources, expertise, or access to specialized equipment needed for your project.
• Seek Feedback: Once you’ve narrowed down your options, seek feedback from mentors, peers, or other experts in the field. They can provide valuable insights and help you refine your project topic before moving forward.
• Make a Decision: Based on your research, reflections, and feedback, make a final decision on your biochemistry project topics. Choose a topic that inspires you, aligns with your interests and goals, and has the potential to contribute to the advancement of knowledge in the field.

Top 50 Biochemistry Project Topics: Category Wise

General biochemistry.

• Elucidating the Mechanisms of Enzyme Catalysis
• Investigating Cellular Metabolic Pathways: From Glycolysis to Oxidative Phosphorylation
• Analysis of Biomolecular Structures: Proteins, Nucleic Acids, Lipids, and Carbohydrates
• Understanding the Role of Biochemical Signaling in Cellular Communication
• Biochemical Basis of Drug Action and Pharmacokinetics

Molecular Biology

• Regulation of Gene Expression: Transcriptional and Post-transcriptional Control Mechanisms
• Genome Editing Technologies: CRISPR-Cas9 and Beyond
• Molecular Mechanisms of DNA Replication and Repair
• Protein Synthesis and Folding: From Ribosome to Functional Protein
• Investigating RNA Biology: Structure, Function, and Regulation

Metabolic Biochemistry

• Regulation of Cellular Metabolism: Hormonal and Nutritional Control Mechanisms
• Biochemical Pathways in Disease: Metabolic Disorders and Dysregulation
• Lipid Metabolism: Biosynthesis, Breakdown, and Regulation
• Molecular Basis of Diabetes Mellitus: Insights into Pathogenesis and Therapeutic Strategies
• Metabolomics: Profiling Metabolic Changes in Health and Disease

Biochemical Techniques

• Chromatographic Techniques in Biochemistry: Principles and Applications
• Spectroscopic Methods for Biomolecular Analysis: UV-Vis, Fluorescence, and NMR Spectroscopy
• Mass Spectrometry in Proteomics: Advances in Analytical Methods and Data Interpretation
• Structural Biology Techniques: X-ray Crystallography, Cryo-EM, and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)
• Applications of Bioinformatics in Biochemistry: Sequence Analysis, Protein Structure Prediction, and Systems Biology

Health and Medicine

• Biochemical Markers of Disease: Diagnostic and Prognostic Applications
• Pharmacogenomics: Personalized Medicine and Drug Response Prediction
• Cancer Biology: Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Targets
• Neurochemistry: Understanding the Biochemical Basis of Brain Function and Dysfunction
• Immunology and Biochemistry: Intersections in Immune Cell Signaling and Regulation

Environmental Biochemistry Project Topics

• Bioremediation of Environmental Pollutants: Microbial and Enzymatic Approaches
• Biogeochemical Cycling of Nutrients: Nitrogen, Carbon, and Phosphorus Cycling in Ecosystems
• Environmental Toxicology: Molecular Mechanisms of Toxicity and Detoxification
• Climate Change and Biochemistry: Impacts on Global Biogeochemical Cycles
• Biofuels and Renewable Energy: Harnessing Biomass for Sustainable Energy Production

Emerging Trends

• Systems Biology Approaches in Biochemistry: Integrating Omics Data for Holistic Understanding
• Synthetic Biology: Designing and Engineering Biological Systems for Novel Applications
• Nanotechnology in Biochemistry: Applications in Drug Delivery, Imaging, and Sensing
• Biochemical Engineering: Bioprocess Optimization and Bioreactor Design
• Bio-inspired Materials: Mimicking Nature for Innovative Biomaterials and Devices

Biotechnology and Industry

• Industrial Enzymes: Production, Optimization, and Applications in Biocatalysis
• Biopharmaceuticals: Development, Production, and Quality Control
• Bioreactor Design and Scale-up: Challenges and Solutions in Bioprocess Engineering
• Biosensors and Bioanalytical Techniques: Rapid Detection and Quantification of Biomolecules
• Bio-based Materials: Sustainable Alternatives for Packaging, Textiles, and Construction

Food and Nutrition

• Nutritional Biochemistry: Understanding the Biochemical Basis of Nutrient Requirements
• Food Processing and Biochemistry: Impact on Nutrient Composition and Bioavailability
• Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals: Bioactive Compounds and Health Benefits
• Nutrigenomics: Interactions between Diet, Genetics, and Health
• Food Allergies and Intolerances: Molecular Mechanisms and Diagnostic Tools

Agricultural Biochemistry

• Plant Biochemistry: Metabolic Pathways and Secondary Metabolites
• Biochemical Basis of Crop Improvement: Breeding for Stress Tolerance and Nutritional Quality
• Soil Biochemistry: Nutrient Cycling, Microbial Communities, and Soil Health
• Plant-Microbe Interactions: Signaling Pathways and Defense Mechanisms
• Biofortification : Enhancing Nutritional Quality of Crops through Genetic and Agronomic Approaches

Tips To Make  Biochemistry Projects

• Choose an Engaging Topic: Select a biochemistry topic that interests you and aligns with your goals. Consider its relevance, novelty, and potential impact on the field.
• Define Clear Objectives: Clearly define the objectives of your project, including the research questions you aim to answer and the hypotheses you plan to test.
• Conduct Thorough Literature Review: Familiarize yourself with the existing literature on your chosen topic. Identify gaps in knowledge, conflicting findings, and areas for further investigation.
• Design Experimental Protocols: Develop detailed experimental protocols outlining the procedures, materials, and equipment needed to conduct your research. Consider potential variables, controls, and replicates to ensure the validity of your results.
• Acquire Necessary Skills: Acquire the necessary laboratory skills and techniques required for your project. Seek guidance from mentors, attend workshops, and practice hands-on training to develop proficiency in biochemical methods.
• Adhere to Safety Guidelines: Prioritize safety in the laboratory by following standard operating procedures, wearing appropriate personal protective equipment, and handling hazardous materials with caution.
• Collect Data Systematically: Conduct experiments meticulously, recording data accurately and consistently. Keep detailed records of your observations, measurements, and experimental conditions for later analysis.
• Analyze Data Effectively: Use appropriate statistical methods and software tools to analyze your data effectively. Interpret your findings critically, identifying trends, correlations, and significant results.
• Communicate Your Findings: Present your research findings clearly and concisely through written reports, oral presentations, and visual aids such as posters or slides. Tailor your communication to your target audience, whether it’s fellow researchers, educators, or the general public.
• Seek Feedback and Collaboration: Solicit feedback from peers, mentors, and experts in the field to refine your project and address any challenges or limitations. Consider collaborating with other researchers or laboratories to leverage resources and expertise.
• Stay Organized and Manage Time: Stay organized throughout the project timeline, setting milestones, deadlines, and priorities. Break down large tasks into smaller manageable steps and allocate time effectively to meet project goals.
• Reflect and Iterate: Reflect on your project experience, including successes, setbacks, and lessons learned. Identify areas for improvement and consider how you can refine your approach in future projects.

In conclusion, biochemistry offers a diverse range of captivating topics, spanning molecular biology, metabolic pathways, and applications in various fields.

By following the outlined tips, researchers can navigate project selection, planning, and execution effectively. Embrace curiosity, collaboration, and continuous learning to make meaningful contributions to scientific understanding.

With dedication and passion, biochemistry projects have the potential to drive innovation and shape the future of healthcare, environmental sustainability, and beyond.

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210 Biochemistry Research Topics For Your Class

Biochemistry research topics demand practical experiments with samples and specimens that yield the desired results. Before approval, a title in this field must start with a proposal representing the typology that the study will eventually produce. Project coordinators or supervisors must screen the topics that students choose without exceptions. Therefore, topic ideas must arise from careful cross-examination of sample specimens and experiments that researchers have watched for some time.

What is Biochemistry?

As the name suggests, biochemistry is the fusion of chemistry and biology in living organisms. Nobody can overstate the essence of biochemistry because it explains the causes of illnesses in animals and humans. Also, biochemistry continues to help researchers and scientists determine how molecules like proteins and vitamins function within the body.

Writing excellent papers in the fields of biochemistry requires admirable knowledge and a good understanding of this scientific branch. Luckily, the internet has many resources with materials that students can research their topics. But students should select their topics carefully and structure their papers properly to impress educators to award them top grades.

Biochemistry Paper Outline

A good biochemistry paper comprises several sections that enable the audience to understand the topic and its information. Here’s is an outline of a quality biochemistry paper.

Title page : The title page comes first in a research paper, providing an overview of the study. This page should include the running head, paper title, student’s name and affiliations, and page number. Students should format this page depending on their writing style, whether MLA, APA, or Chicago. Intro : The introduction is the second section of a biochemistry research paper. And this part should have an abstract and an introduction. Nevertheless, this part places the work into context for the audience. It also tells the readers why the study is relevant. Literature review : In this section, the student examines the materials they consulted during research. A good paper comprises a comprehensive assessment to show that the author read several published works on the issue. It also shows why the current study is essential and different. Methodology : Here, the writer explains their methods to gather and analyze the information they convey to the audience. This section is essential because it enables the audience to evaluate the validity of the research. Researchers can use experiments, observation, case studies, and documentary methods in their research. Analysis and discussion : In this section, the writer conveys the results of their research work. They also expound on their methodology. This part can include tables and figures that are easy-to-understand and precise. Conclusion : This part of a biochemistry paper summarizes the research while suggesting further studies on the topic. Reference : This section lists the materials that the writer consulted during the research. Including a bibliography makes the work authentic.

College and university learners must pick interesting topics to enjoy working on their research projects. Without exciting topic ideas, learners can struggle to work on their papers from the beginning to the end. That’s why this article lists some of the best and popular topics in this scientific field. However, you should remember there is always a possibility to custom dissertation from our professional helpers team.

Remarkable Biochemistry Research Paper Topics

Maybe you’re looking for a topic that will leave the educator no option but to award you the best grade in your class. If so, consider the following ideas for your research paper.

• Can watermelon help in the fight against viral activities?
• Explain how ethanol causes corrosion
• How scientists extract the medicinal components of a plant
• Taxonomic groupings’ role in biochemistry
• Investigating the fungal pathogens that science associates with tomato spoilage
• The impact of Cadmium on humans and the environment
• The optimum conditions for ethanol and aqueous extracts
• How drinking water fluorides affect your teeth
• How acid rain impacts building structures
• The methanol leaf extraction process
• How high-fat diets cause heart diseases and obesity
• The analytical biochemistry concepts
• Applied biochemistry and biotechnology- What’s the correlation?
• How to use pawpaw leaves to produce deodorants
• The active polar gels spontaneous flow and the causes
• Analyzing gene encoding in cassava and sorghum
• Destabilization’s causes in lysosomes
• Evaluating physicochemical processes in living organisms
• Investigating conditions that facilitate Thymus Vulgaris’ antibacterial activity

These are great topics that will impress your professor to award you a good grade. Nevertheless, prepare yourself to research any of these ideas extensively before writing.

Interesting Biochemistry Topics

When choosing a topic in this field, a vital consideration is ensuring that it’s exciting to hold the reader’s attention. Also, the learner should pick a topic they are interested in to write a winning piece. Here are exciting ideas to consider in biochemistry.

• Comprehensive analysis of infectious diseases’ evolutionary biology
• Photosynthesis and its functions
• Reviewing plant disease management using modern technology
• How oxytocin affects psychopathic disease treatment
• Analyzing the factors causing genetic mutation
• How addictive substances affect the human genes
• Living organisms and their cell structures
• The development of cellular technology
• Gestation period and its function in mammals
• Cellular biology functions in recognizing and identifying genetics
• Studying chemical reactions in the body using hormones
• Alzheimer’s disease and therapeutic advances in treating it
• The regulation mechanisms of stem cell biology
• Cancerous cells and their biology
• Genetic mapping and linkage analysis
• The nucleic acid structure
• Coronavirus and epidemiology
• Cellular membranes’ functions and their essence in life forms
• Analyzing the capabilities of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
• Studying the apoptosis significance in faulty cells’ growth
• Understanding the role of microbial itaconic acid and the production of fungi synthesis
• Analyzing MOBs and NDR1/2 relationship in signaling a defective cell cycle
• Documenting and mapping morphogen signaling pathways and regulation of biological responses
• Vaccines and diseases- Understanding B cell receptors targeting
• Bacteriophages and human health
• Microbial biofilm formation- Molecular mechanisms therapeutics
• Comparing protein folding and design between humans and mice
• Investigating the evolution of microbial diseases
• The role of structural determinants of protein in human health
• Analyzing ion transport and membrane biology in innate immune response
• How protein-membrane structure and function affect drug distribution
• Why is protein-membrane design so important?
• Cellular basis and mapping biochemical glucose transport of the insulin action and resistance
• Comprehending the role of peptide and protein structure in membranes
• The essence of platelet function and dysfunction on injuries
• Understanding Sprouty 2 inhibition impacts on periodontal ligament cells
• How placental toxic factors’ release affects blood circulation
• Determining the protein amount in urine
• How maternal serum affects pregnant women
• Evaluating diabetes’ pathogenesis and its impact
• What necessitates iron homeostasis regulation?
• The relationship between high hepcidin level and T2DM
• How biochemistry experiments have facilitated cardiovascular illnesses treatment
• Factors necessitating insulin resistance in the body
• Ways to identify mycobacterium Ulcerans on the skin
• Environmental reservoirs of biological catalysts and enzymes
• The risks of biochemistry lab research
• Ecological conditions’ impact on lab extracts
• Evaluating alkaloidal isolates in plants
• Analyzing anti-inflammatory medical plants in tropical regions
• Investigating pro-inflammatory eicosanoids’ production
• Anti-inflammatory medicinal plants- Understanding their therapeutic action
• How herbal preparations affect skin disease treatment
• Destabilizing the Lysozyme activity
• How temperature ranges affect enzyme activity
• Alpha crystalline role in a concentration

These are exciting topics to consider for a biochemistry paper. However, they require an extensive investigation to draft a winning essay.

Current Topics in Biochemical Research

Maybe you want to write about something latest. In that case, consider these current topic ideas.

• Investigating the role of peptide and protein function in membranes
• Analyzing the biological impact of periodontal ligament cells
• Critical analysis of microbial diseases’ evolution
• Understand the regulatory mechanisms in genetics
• B cells receptors role in vaccines and diseases
• The biology and pathology of cancer
• What regulates the population of cells?
• Factors that scientists associate with new drug initiation to a patient
• Phenolic acids and their vitro effects
• Evaluating the effects of maternal serum on women during pregnancy and children
• Alkaloidal isolates effects of plants
• Chemical composition effects of potassium permanganate
• Preliminary investigation on Citrus Sinensis Seed and Coat screening
• Metalloenzymes and metalloproteins- The contrast
• Aspirin chemical quantity analysis
• Exploring Polyphosphate role on Erwinia Caratovora Virulence
• Reviewing the human genome mapping and its impact on disease prevention
• Why information matters in predicting the protein dihedral angles
• Central dogma exceptions
• Investigating the functions and structure of amino acids
• Why protein Kinase matters in cancer and drug resistance
• Malignancies biology and skeletal complications
• Studying cellular structure and function
• Biology and cancer pathology
• Biology and coagulation disease
• Understanding physical biochemistry
• Intestinal microbes- What is their role in human health and diseases
• Developing and characterizing chemical compounds targeting colon, pancreatic, and lung cancers
• Using microarray technology in describing P623 and P73 regulated genes in cancer
• The genetics of cancer molecules: Understanding the genomics-based method for gene expression and association studies
• Lipid metabolism in mitochondrial and metabolic diseases
• Genetic regulatory and epigenetic mechanisms
• Functional nucleic acid and protein interactions
• Structural biology and enzymology
• Understanding measles in infants and biochemistry-based vaccination
• Biochemistry’s role in controlling cell motility in different developmental stages
• Why scanning serum medical examinations and microscopy matter in biochemistry
• How various brain cancers relate to genetics and radiation exposure
• How to preserve plant extracts for biochemistry experiments
• Biochemical-based rotavirus vaccines’ role in acute gastroenteritis in children
• Explain trial stages vaccine reactions and the role of biochemistry in achieving the desired results
• How amino acids hydrocarbons affect biochemical reactions after subjecting the human body to medication
• The essence of biochemistry research in developing ways to initiate new treatments in patients
• Understanding the chemical properties of the COVID-19 vaccines and reactions in males and females

Biochemistry research projects on these topics can help learners unearth the latest information in their study field. What’s more, students can use them to showcase their awareness and impress educators.

Cool Biochemistry Topics

Selecting a topic that you’re comfortable working with will simplify your project completion. Here are excellent biochemistry paper topics to consider for comfortable research and writing experience.

• Immunoglobulin G Receptors and their role in a clinical malaria study
• The effects and process of destabilizing Lysozyme activity
• The flow of chemical energy through metabolism
• Phosphates structure as the necessary synthesis from alcohol
• Bacteria membranes and their dynamics
• DNA synthesis complexities in the definition
• Assessing the chemical quality in Aspirin production
• A comprehensive investigation of hepatitis B prevalence
• A review of Amyloid diseases
• Muscular dystrophy and molecular genetics analysis
• Analyzing the latest high blood pressure medications
• How variant frequencies affect biochemical reactions
• Explain the phenolic acids’ vitro effects
• What inhibits cell growth while interfering with iron-dependent enzymes’ activity?
• Explain ways to determine iron Chelators deferoxamine presence in Trypanosoma Brunei
• Alternative therapy forms to drug toxicity
• Evaluating drug resistance in pregnant women
• How clinicians determine a drug’s effectiveness
• The effects of iron Chelators on different Trypanosoma Brunei’s bloodstream forms
• Explain the Rotaviruses’ role in causing acute gastroenteritis in children
• Understanding the biological processes responsible for intestinal mucosa inflammation
• Molecular ways to investigate gene variations
• Evaluating the toxicological impacts of Desmodium Adscendens in mice
• How high freeze-dried extracts affect biochemical reactions
• Pathogenic risks that scientists associate with breast cancer
• Analyzing the multi-factorial diseases among females
• The biological factors promoting tumor growth
• Evaluating the immunoglobulin G receptors’ role in a clinical malaria study
• Determining the binding capabilities of the receptors’ antigen
• Receptors’ gene encoding process- A biochemical perspective

These ideas can be excellent topics for biochemistry research papers. However, learners should spend sufficient time researching their ideas to develop winning papers.

Hot Topics in Biochemistry

Perhaps, you want to write about a hot issue in this academic field. In that case, this section has a burning idea that you can explore.

• Non-enzymatic and enzymatic protein role
• The Stability, interactions, and structure in protein
• How effective is population health in improving aggregate health performance in emerging economies?
• Is amyloid disease transmissible?
• Describe protein quantification
• Define frequency modulation and controlled signaling
• The potential and challenges of recombinant spider silk and its implications in biomedical applications
• The use of biomedical means by athletes seeking unfair advantage
• How human genome mapping can affect society and medicine
• Analyzing biochemistry advancements and their effects on new medications
• Reviewing the reactions and structure of phosphates and esters and their synthesis
• Purification and expression of proteins’ responses at different ENTH levels
• Evidence for or against animal disease models and scientific values in seeking disease cures
• Investigating B lymphocyte cell line and aggregation from temperature sensitivity and chicken
• The role of polyphosphate on Erwinia caratovora’s virulence
• Molecular functions and cellular dissection in the latest high blood pressure medications
• Comparing biochemical studies over the last century
• Analyzing DNA synthesis complexes in the definition
• Analyzing molecular genetics in a single causative gene and muscular dystrophy
• Investigating complex biochemical compounds’ revelations in the DNA mapping study
• Detecting soft tissue sarcoma
• How to determine new clotting factors’ structure
• How to confirm the presence of enzymes in selenium
• Ethanol chemical compositions and their impact on the human liver and lungs
• Rusting metals and their chemical properties
• Alpha-crystalline’s role in a concentration
• Why iron homeostasis needs regulation
• Investigating the RNA’s atomic matrix
• What does RNA transcription involve?
• Coagulation disease’s biology

These are excellent biochemistry project topics for learners at various study levels. Nevertheless, students must research them extensively before writing.

Topics for Biochemistry Science Fair Projects

Picking a science fair project title can be cumbersome because the task is more demanding than writing a research paper. Here are brilliant ideas to consider for this project.

• An electrolysis experiment
• How to grow and use bacteria
• Separating compound mixtures and their impact
• Impact soft and hard water
• Exploring different ways to extinguish fires without water
• How temperature affects various liquids and their density
• The effects and role of ethanol in erosions
• The importance and impact of salt on melting points
• Evaluating gasoline properties
• Investigating the structure of enzymes
• Anti-tumor agents and their design
• The forms of x-ray of iron-binding in protein
• Biochemistry and the necessary enzymes
• Detecting invisible spills using backlight
• How ultraviolet radiation affects bacteria growth
• Plants crossbreeding
• How smock pollution can affect plants’ transpiration rates
• The DNA-protein complexes and their role in replication
• How Ph and minerals’ concentration affect water and soil samples
• How sunspots affect weather patterns

These biochemistry project topics are great ideas for a science fair. Nevertheless, they require time, effort, and research to convey relevant and quality information.

Easy Biochemistry Research Topics List

Maybe you need a simple topic to write about and score the top grade quickly. If so, here’s a list of easy ideas to consider for your paper.

• How eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells create energy
• The role of sunlight as the cells’ energy source
• Analyzing cell membranes and protection mechanisms in living cells
• Why investigating defective cells impact is important
• Studying genetic materials role in differentiating cells
• Organisms’ structure and physiological properties
• Understanding cell’s composition and its functions
• How cancer affects the cell growth
• Current trends in molecular biochemistry
• The microtubules’ role in the nervous system
• Protein biosynthesis mechanics

All these are easy topics for academic papers. However, they still require some research before writing.

Get Professional Homework Help Online

Having a topic alone may not be enough to draft a winning paper. You also need skills, experience, and time to write a good essay. Unfortunately, some learners lack what it takes to compose a brilliant piece. That’s why we offer our affordable thesis writing service .

Once you seek our help, our trusted expert will research your topic and write a high-quality paper. Thus, you will beat the submission deadline and score the top grade in your class. Our service is cheap, reliable, and professional. Many learners have used it to excel academically. Contact us for quality help with your biochemistry paper.

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