how to use appendix in essay harvard

Harvard Referencing - SETU Libraries Waterford Guide: Appendices

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LSBU Harvard Referencing: Appendices

• Act of Parliament
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When you add appendices to your work, make sure they are clearly labelled with a letter (A) or number (1).

When you refer to the appendices in your work, you can add (see Appendix A) at the end of your sentence or Appendix A shows that...at the beginning of your sentence.

If you have included an appendix in your work and have added references within it, insert the citations in the text of your appendix as normal and include the full references in your reference list.

If the appendix you have created consists entirely of text written by someone else, then add the citation at the end of the text (as you would in your essay) and include the full reference in your list.

Referencing appendices in someone else's work

If you refer to an appendix in someone else's work, then you add this to your usual citation, as well as the page number if appropriate.

For example:    ....embedded in policy and practice (McCormack and McCance, 2022, Appendix A, p.2).

The resource is referenced in the normal way in your reference list.

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• Writing Tips

The Appendix (How to Use One in an Essay)

• 2-minute read
• 30th March 2017

The appendices in an essay are not typically essential, but they can play an important supporting role. Not everyone knows how to use an appendix in academic writing , though, so we’ve prepared this handy guide.

What Is an Appendix?

An appendix (plural: appendices ) is a section at the end of a book or essay containing details that aren’t essential to your work, but which could provide useful context or background material.

In the main body of your essay, you should indicate when you’re referring to an appendix by citing it in parentheses. For example:

The interviews show that most people like ice cream (see Appendix C).

What Should Go in the Appendices?

Appendices can include many things depending on your topic. Common examples of information added to an appendix include:

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• Raw data from tests
• Technical figures, graphs or tables
• Maps, charts or images
• Letters or emails used in research
• Sample questionnaires or surveys
• Full interview transcripts

What these have in common is that you might need to refer to them in an essay without going into too much detail. For example, you might summarise the results of a test in the ‘Results’ section of a dissertation, then include the full data in appendices to ensure clarity.

How to Format Appendices

Exactly how to format appendices can vary between universities, so you should always check your style guide. Generally, though, appendices should:

• Appear at the end of your document, often after the reference list
• Be divided into sections depending on topic (e.g. separate sections for questionnaire results and interview transcripts)
• Have each appendix section start on a new page
• Be labelled with a letter or number, along with a title clarifying content (Appendix A: Instrument Diagrams, Appendix B: Test Results, etc.)
• Appear in the table of contents at the beginning of your document

Are Appendices Included in the Word Count?

Appendices are not usually included in the word count for an essay. Consequently, you can focus on key information in your work and place extra data in an appendix without worrying about the word count.

However, you should always check your style guide on this. And remember that if you rely on something in your main essay, it needs to be included there: you can’t just shuffle it into the appendices to reduce the word count !

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• Library FAQs

Q. How do I cite an appendix in text using Harvard WesternSydU?

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Answered By: The Library Last Updated: Aug 02, 2022     Views: 173853

An appendix will go at the end of your essay or report and before the reference list. All items that are placed in an appendix must be cited in the body of your essay/report as Appendix. If there is more than one appendix, distinguish them using letters or numbers e.g. Appendix A, Appendix B or Appendix 1, Appendix 2 etc.

If the item in the appendix is from a published source place a short citation in the appendix (not in the body of your essay/report) and add the full citation in the reference list.

• Start the appendix on a new page with the title Appendix or Appendixes (if there is more than one item).
• Order the appendix items in the same order they are referred to in text.
• Create a label and descriptive title for each appendix item.
• Centre the label and title. Change the label to bold type e.g. Appendix A .
• If the material is from a published source, use the word 'Source:' followed by a short citation (author and year of publication) and place it at the bottom left of the appendix item. Enter the full reference in your reference list.

The full citation is placed in the reference list in alphabetical order by author with all other references from your essay or report.

 Example reference list:

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Related topics.

• Referencing

• Compiling your reference list
• Elements of a reference
• Publication information
• How do I reference if publication details are missing?
• Referencing a source within a source: secondary referencing
• Referencing a source with more than one author
• Referencing sources by the same author in the same year
• Referencing confidential material
• What is a DOI?
• Appendices in UON Harvard
• Referencing a source not listed in this guide

Use of Appendices in UON Harvard

Appendix is the word for the singular, and appendices is plural. This is supplementary work you have conducted to complete your assessment. It offers the reader more context to the information you have outlined in your assessment.  If the reader would like clarification regarding this extra information, it is available for them, but does not make up part of the main body of the assessment. All appendices come after your reference list.

For example, your contents page could look like this…

Introduction.………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..2

Methods ………………….…………………………………………………………………………………………….…….4

Results………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………7

Discussion……………………………………………….……………………………………………………………………9

Conclusions………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….12

References………………………………………….……………………………………………………………………….13

Appendix 1 Raw data…………………………………………………….…………………………………………...17

Appendix 2 Interview transcriptions…………………….…………………………………………………...18

Within your assessment, you can refer to each appendix by outlining the content; this can be either using numbers or letters. For example:

The raw data (appendix 1) shows the information gathered from the participants in the research project.

Always start each appendix on a new page. In addition to the appendix number or letter, a title needs to be written on the appendix page to make it easier for the reader to digest the information.

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RGU Harvard Templates: Appendices

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By Ownership

My own appendices.

If the appendix is something you have written yourself, then you may have included references within it. If so, you just insert the citations in the text of your appendix as normal and include the full references along with all the others in your reference list.

If the appendix you have created consists entirely of text written by someone else, then put the citation at the bottom and include the full reference in your list.

It is clear (see Appendix 1) that...

Reference List :

Not required.

Someone Else's Appendices

It has been shown (Smith 1959 appendix 1 p. 4) that...

Reference the book, article etc. in the normal way.

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Referencing: Appendices

• Referencing Guide
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What is an Appendix?

An appendix (plural: appendices) contains supplementary material that is not an essential part of the text itself but which may provide useful background material, evidence or context.

Appendices can contain all sorts of information, but commonly they include graphs created from your own data, data itself and/or correspondence. There is no limit to what can be placed in the appendix providing it is relevant and reference is made to it in the essay. 

If a source can be included in the reference list and/or list of figures, do not put it into your appendices, it should be referenced in the bibliography or included in the list of figures instead.

If you are unsure of what to include in the appendices please ask your unit tutor.

Formatting Your Appendix

An appendix is placed at the end of your essay or report, after the reference list/bibliography. If there is more than one appendix, distinguish them using letters or numbers, e.g. Appendix A, or Appendix 1. Each appendix should deal with a separate topic.

• Order the appendix items in the same order they are referred to in text.
• Create a label and descriptive title for each appendix item, e.g. Appendix A: Questionnaire Data.
• Each appendix entry starts on a new page with the relevant Appendix label (Appendix 1, Appendix 2, Appendix A, etc.). If there is only one appendix, it is just called Appendix
• Ensure that the label matches the in text citation to the Appendix

Citing an Appendix

All items that are placed in an appendix should be cited in your essay/report. The order they are numbered/lettered is dictated by the order they are mentioned in the text of the report. So, the first Appendix you mention should be Appendix 1/Appendix A, the second should be Appendix 2/Appendix B, and so forth.

Examples: Appendix A shows the results from the survey… or …the email from the producer indicated the delay (see Appendix B).

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• Referencing

A Quick Guide to Harvard Referencing | Citation Examples

Published on 14 February 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on 15 September 2023.

Referencing is an important part of academic writing. It tells your readers what sources you’ve used and how to find them.

Harvard is the most common referencing style used in UK universities. In Harvard style, the author and year are cited in-text, and full details of the source are given in a reference list .

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Table of contents

Harvard in-text citation, creating a harvard reference list, harvard referencing examples, referencing sources with no author or date, frequently asked questions about harvard referencing.

A Harvard in-text citation appears in brackets beside any quotation or paraphrase of a source. It gives the last name of the author(s) and the year of publication, as well as a page number or range locating the passage referenced, if applicable:

Note that ‘p.’ is used for a single page, ‘pp.’ for multiple pages (e.g. ‘pp. 1–5’).

An in-text citation usually appears immediately after the quotation or paraphrase in question. It may also appear at the end of the relevant sentence, as long as it’s clear what it refers to.

When your sentence already mentions the name of the author, it should not be repeated in the citation:

Sources with multiple authors

When you cite a source with up to three authors, cite all authors’ names. For four or more authors, list only the first name, followed by ‘ et al. ’:

Sources with no page numbers

Some sources, such as websites , often don’t have page numbers. If the source is a short text, you can simply leave out the page number. With longer sources, you can use an alternate locator such as a subheading or paragraph number if you need to specify where to find the quote:

Multiple citations at the same point

When you need multiple citations to appear at the same point in your text – for example, when you refer to several sources with one phrase – you can present them in the same set of brackets, separated by semicolons. List them in order of publication date:

Multiple sources with the same author and date

If you cite multiple sources by the same author which were published in the same year, it’s important to distinguish between them in your citations. To do this, insert an ‘a’ after the year in the first one you reference, a ‘b’ in the second, and so on:

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A bibliography or reference list appears at the end of your text. It lists all your sources in alphabetical order by the author’s last name, giving complete information so that the reader can look them up if necessary.

The reference entry starts with the author’s last name followed by initial(s). Only the first word of the title is capitalised (as well as any proper nouns).

Sources with multiple authors in the reference list

As with in-text citations, up to three authors should be listed; when there are four or more, list only the first author followed by ‘ et al. ’:

Reference list entries vary according to source type, since different information is relevant for different sources. Formats and examples for the most commonly used source types are given below.

• Entire book
• Book chapter
• Translated book
• Edition of a book

Journal articles

• Print journal
• Online-only journal with DOI
• Online-only journal with no DOI

• General web page
• Online article or blog
• Social media post

Sometimes you won’t have all the information you need for a reference. This section covers what to do when a source lacks a publication date or named author.

No publication date

When a source doesn’t have a clear publication date – for example, a constantly updated reference source like Wikipedia or an obscure historical document which can’t be accurately dated – you can replace it with the words ‘no date’:

Note that when you do this with an online source, you should still include an access date, as in the example.

When a source lacks a clearly identified author, there’s often an appropriate corporate source – the organisation responsible for the source – whom you can credit as author instead, as in the Google and Wikipedia examples above.

When that’s not the case, you can just replace it with the title of the source in both the in-text citation and the reference list:

Harvard referencing uses an author–date system. Sources are cited by the author’s last name and the publication year in brackets. Each Harvard in-text citation corresponds to an entry in the alphabetised reference list at the end of the paper.

Vancouver referencing uses a numerical system. Sources are cited by a number in parentheses or superscript. Each number corresponds to a full reference at the end of the paper.

A Harvard in-text citation should appear in brackets every time you quote, paraphrase, or refer to information from a source.

The citation can appear immediately after the quotation or paraphrase, or at the end of the sentence. If you’re quoting, place the citation outside of the quotation marks but before any other punctuation like a comma or full stop.

In Harvard referencing, up to three author names are included in an in-text citation or reference list entry. When there are four or more authors, include only the first, followed by ‘ et al. ’

Though the terms are sometimes used interchangeably, there is a difference in meaning:

• A reference list only includes sources cited in the text – every entry corresponds to an in-text citation .
• A bibliography also includes other sources which were consulted during the research but not cited.

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If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.

Caulfield, J. (2023, September 15). A Quick Guide to Harvard Referencing | Citation Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 12 August 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/referencing/harvard-style/

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• Research Paper Appendix | Example & Templates

Research Paper Appendix | Example & Templates

Published on August 4, 2022 by Tegan George and Kirsten Dingemanse. Revised on July 18, 2023.

An appendix is a supplementary document that facilitates your reader’s understanding of your research but is not essential to your core argument. Appendices are a useful tool for providing additional information or clarification in a research paper , dissertation , or thesis without making your final product too long.

Appendices help you provide more background information and nuance about your thesis or dissertation topic without disrupting your text with too many tables and figures or other distracting elements.

We’ve prepared some examples and templates for you, for inclusions such as research protocols, survey questions, and interview transcripts. All are worthy additions to an appendix. You can download these in the format of your choice below.

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Table of contents

What is an appendix in a research paper, what to include in an appendix, how to format an appendix, how to refer to an appendix, where to put your appendices, other components to consider, appendix checklist, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about appendices.

In the main body of your research paper, it’s important to provide clear and concise information that supports your argument and conclusions . However, after doing all that research, you’ll often find that you have a lot of other interesting information that you want to share with your reader.

While including it all in the body would make your paper too long and unwieldy, this is exactly what an appendix is for.

As a rule of thumb, any detailed information that is not immediately needed to make your point can go in an appendix. This helps to keep your main text focused but still allows you to include the information you want to include somewhere in your paper.

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An appendix can be used for different types of information, such as:

• Supplementary results : Research findings  are often presented in different ways, but they don’t all need to go in your paper. The results most relevant to your research question should always appear in the main text, while less significant results (such as detailed descriptions of your sample or supplemental analyses that do not help answer your main question), can be put in an appendix.
• Statistical analyses : If you conducted statistical tests using software like Stata or R, you may also want to include the outputs of your analysis in an appendix.
• Further information on surveys or interviews : Written materials or transcripts related to things such as surveys and interviews can also be placed in an appendix.

You can opt to have one long appendix, but separating components (like interview transcripts, supplementary results, or surveys ) into different appendices makes the information simpler to navigate.

Here are a few tips to keep in mind:

• Always start each appendix on a new page.
• Assign it both a number (or letter) and a clear title, such as “Appendix A. Interview transcripts.” This makes it easier for your reader to find the appendix, as well as for you to refer back to it in your main text.
• Number and title the individual elements within each appendix (e.g., “Transcripts”) to make it clear what you are referring to. Restart the numbering in each appendix at 1.

It is important that you refer to each of your appendices at least once in the main body of your paper. This can be done by mentioning the appendix and its number or letter, either in parentheses or within the main part of a sentence. It’s also possible to refer to a particular component of an appendix.

Appendix B presents the correspondence exchanged with the fitness boutique. Example 2. Referring to an appendix component These results (see Appendix 2, Table 1) show that …

It is common to capitalize “Appendix” when referring to a specific appendix, but it is not mandatory. The key is just to make sure that you are consistent throughout your entire paper, similarly to consistency in  capitalizing headings and titles in academic writing .

However, note that lowercase should always be used if you are referring to appendices in general. For instance, “The appendices to this paper include additional information about both the survey and the interviews .”

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The AI-powered Citation Checker helps you avoid common mistakes such as:

• Missing commas and periods
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• Missing reference entries

The simplest option is to add your appendices after the main body of your text, after you finish citing your sources in the citation style of your choice. If this is what you choose to do, simply continue with the next page number. Another option is to put the appendices in a separate document that is delivered with your dissertation.

Remember that any appendices should be listed in your paper’s table of contents .

There are a few other supplementary components related to appendices that you may want to consider. These include:

• List of abbreviations : If you use a lot of abbreviations or field-specific symbols in your dissertation, it can be helpful to create a list of abbreviations .
• Glossary : If you utilize many specialized or technical terms, it can also be helpful to create a glossary .
• Tables, figures and other graphics : You may find you have too many tables, figures, and other graphics (such as charts and illustrations) to include in the main body of your dissertation. If this is the case, consider adding a figure and table list .

Checklist: Appendix

All appendices contain information that is relevant, but not essential, to the main text.

Each appendix starts on a new page.

I have given each appendix a number and clear title.

I have assigned any specific sub-components (e.g., tables and figures) their own numbers and titles.

My appendices are easy to follow and clearly formatted.

I have referred to each appendix at least once in the main text.

Your appendices look great! Use the other checklists to further improve your thesis.

If you want to know more about AI for academic writing, AI tools, or research bias, make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

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Yes, if relevant you can and should include APA in-text citations in your appendices . Use author-date citations as you do in the main text.

Any sources cited in your appendices should appear in your reference list . Do not create a separate reference list for your appendices.

An appendix contains information that supplements the reader’s understanding of your research but is not essential to it. For example:

• Interview transcripts
• Questionnaires
• Detailed descriptions of equipment

Something is only worth including as an appendix if you refer to information from it at some point in the text (e.g. quoting from an interview transcript). If you don’t, it should probably be removed.

When you include more than one appendix in an APA Style paper , they should be labeled “Appendix A,” “Appendix B,” and so on.

When you only include a single appendix, it is simply called “Appendix” and referred to as such in the main text.

Appendices in an APA Style paper appear right at the end, after the reference list and after your tables and figures if you’ve also included these at the end.

You may have seen both “appendices” or “appendixes” as pluralizations of “ appendix .” Either spelling can be used, but “appendices” is more common (including in APA Style ). Consistency is key here: make sure you use the same spelling throughout your paper.

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Harvard Style Citation and Referencing: a Detailed Guide from Experts

Defining What is Harvard Citation Style and Referencing

From the first time we put our pen on paper, we're taught how important it is to give credit where it's needed. Whether a research paper outline or a doctoral dissertation, proper references, and citations are the foundation of academic work in any field. And when it's time to cite sources, there's one style that stands out: Harvard style. In this article, we will explore the nuances of Harvard style citations and help you navigate the complexity of this important academic tool.

Developed by the Harvard Graduate School for Education, the Harvard style citation is a Ferrari of citations designed for the ultimate advantage of your research. Harvard Style, like a sports car, is streamlined, precise, and designed for speed. From its inception at Harvard at the beginning 20th century, this style has become a standard of academic reference and has been praised for its clarity and sophistication.

Intended to be simple and accessible to all, the Harvard style quickly became popular in the mid-20s and is based upon using the date-author citation in the document text, together with the detailed list of references at the document's end. Nowadays that it has gained universal acknowledgment, Harvard referencing is a critical instrument for scientists in multiple disciplines, owing to its simple yet tasteful design that has endured for many years.

Importance of Using Harvard Style Citation Properly

Using Harvard style citations and references correctly is like putting a hidden weapon in the arsenal of your academics. It'll be more than just following rules; it'll be about proving your credibility and that your work is grounded in solid evidence and reliable sources. Therefore, proper citations and references are crucial for a wide range of purposes:

• First, by acknowledging your sources, you avoid plagiarism and demonstrate that you've taken the necessary precautions and are not attempting to pass on someone else's work as yours.
• Secondly, Harvard citation style and references allow readers to track their sources and verify their assertions. This is especially relevant in fields in which precision and accuracy are important, e.g., in the fields of science and technology.
• Thirdly, using Harvard style citations and references shows you belong to a larger academic community and know their standards and norms. By conforming to the customary citation and referencing guidelines, you can communicate that you are a reliable and trustworthy scholar who values their work.

Before finding out more of the important details about the Harvard referencing style, you might want to delegate your ' Do My Math Homework ' request to our experts!

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Key Features of Harvard Style Citation and Referencing

Below are a few of the principal characteristics of Harvard Style that make it such a popular choice among scholars:

How to Use Harvard Style Citation and Referencing

As was already established, references and citations in the Harvard style are commonly accepted. Therefore, you should take the required actions to ensure accurate citation. Let's adhere to these basic guidelines to give credit where credit is due:

Harvard Style Guidelines include:

• Use a standard font such as Times New Roman or Arial in size 12.
• Set margins to 1 inch on all sides.
• Use double spacing throughout the document, including the reference list.
• Place a header on each page, which should include the title of your paper and the page number, located in the top right-hand corner.
• Make sure to include a title page with your paper title, your name, the name of your institution, and the date of submission. Or you can always find out more on how to title an essay from our expert writers!
• Use headings as a way to organize and simplify your paper with bold or italic letters.
• Include in-text citations
• Include a reference list at the end of your paper.

By selecting the button below, you may get a template from our research paper writing services that includes a sample of an essay cover page, headers, subheadings, and a reference list.

How to Reference Sources Without an Anchor on Date

In Harvard referencing, if you're citing a source without an explicit date, you can still provide as much information as possible to identify the source and omit the date. Here's how you could format it:

Author(s) Last name, Initials. (Year, if available). Title of the work. Publisher. (if applicable) URL or DOI (if available).

For example, let's say you're citing a web page authored by John Smith, but there's no publication date available:

Smith, J. (n.d.). Title of the Web Page. Retrieved from http://www.example-website.com

In this example, "n.d." stands for "no date." This indicates to your reader that the publication date is unknown. It's important to include as much information as possible to help your readers locate the source themselves. If you're citing a printed source with no date, you can simply omit the date and provide the rest of the information as usual.

Common Errors and Pitfalls in Using Harvard Style

While the Harvard Style citation may seem straightforward, there are several common errors and pitfalls that students and researchers should be aware of to ensure they are using the style correctly.

One common error is forgetting to include page numbers when referencing a source. Harvard style requires that page numbers be included when citing a direct quote or paraphrasing from a source. Failing to include page numbers can make it difficult for readers to locate the information being cited and can result in lost points on an assignment or paper.

Another pitfall is the improper formatting of references. Harvard style requires specific formatting for different types of sources, such as italicizing book titles and using quotation marks for article titles. Failure to follow these guidelines can result in a loss of points and confusion for readers.

Another common mistake is inconsistency in formatting and citation styles. It is important to use the same style throughout a document, including in-text citations and the reference list. Mixing different styles can make the document difficult to read and may result in a lower grade. And, if this problem sounds familiar and you wish 'if only somebody could rewrite my essay ,' get our essay writing help in a flash!

Finally, another pitfall to avoid is relying too heavily on online Harvard referencing generator tools. They can be useful for creating references, although they are not always reliable and might not adhere to the exact rules of Harvard style. To guarantee that the references produced by these tools are accurate and in the right format, it is crucial to carefully review and adjust them.

Meanwhile, if you're not really feeling like dealing with the nitty-gritty of referencing your character analysis essay using Harvard style, no sweat! We've got your back on that one too.

Key Takeaways

In conclusion, knowing what is Harvard citation style and how to properly cite sources using this style is an essential ability for any student or researcher writing academically. The main lesson to be learned is that accurate citation not only shows academic honesty but also strengthens the authority of your work and backs up your claims. You may make sure that your writing is correctly referenced, structured, and accepted in the academic world by including these important lessons in it.

And if you feel like you need extra help, our expert paper writing services will provide you with a high-quality Harvard style citation example paper that demonstrates correct citation and formatting, giving you the knowledge and confidence to cite sources effectively in your own work!

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How Do You Format a Citation in Harvard Style?

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Guide to Harvard Referencing

• 33-minute read
• 22nd June 2023

Note: This is an advanced guide to Harvard, useful for professional editors, academics, and students looking to bump up their grades with flawless referencing! If you’re new to Harvard and feel a little lost, check out our introduction to Harvard referencing .  For extra help from Harvard experts, try our student proofreading services  for free, or learn more about our  editing services for businesses .

Harvard referencing refers to the general citation style of listing a source’s author and date in parentheses within the text, with a corresponding entry in a reference list at the end of the work.

If a customer says they’ve been asked to use the Harvard referencing style, it could be one of many variations. You should check if a particular version has been specified. If there isn’t, use this guide to apply the version we use, but add a note for the customer to check with their institution. Also, pay attention to the requested dialect. Quotation marks, for instance, will vary depending on whether the citation is written in US or UK English .

In-text Citations: The Basics

Essentially, the surname of the author of the source and the year of its publication must be given in the text. If it is not known when a source was published, it must be indicated with “no date” (abbreviated to “n.d.” ) in place of the year.

If a direct quote is made from a source, then the in-text citation must also include the page number (or paragraph) of the quote. For page numbers, the basic form is “p.” for a single page and “pp.” for quotes spanning multiple pages. For paragraphs, use “para.” (e.g., for websites that don’t have pages); for long documents without page numbers, you can choose to include the section or chapter number or name (e.g., Smith, 1998, Section title, para. 3), but do check with your institution’s style guide.

Those key pieces of information are given in parentheses in the same font as the surrounding text and separated by commas. The bracketed citation should immediately follow the portion of the sentence that comes from the external source. If the author is mentioned in the sentence, then the bracketed citation (which will then just include the year of publication) will need to follow directly after the author’s name.

In-text citations can take three basic forms :

• Something else (Carter, 1940) is relevant to this example.
• Carter (1940) said something relevant to this example.
• “This is relevant” (Carter, 1940, p. 64).

If the source doesn’t come from an author with a surname – a corporate body, for example – then the name of that organization takes the place of the surname:

• This guide on Harvard referencing advises… (Proofed, 2022).

These basic rules will need to be adapted to various circumstances, which we will discuss next.

Multiple Authors

When there are multiple authors of the same work, the main thing to remember is that in-text citations name one or two authors. For three or more authors, only the first is mentioned, followed by “et al.” (in which case, note that a period is used in addition to a comma because “al.” is an abbreviation).

NB: When it comes to the full list of references at the end, all authors – some institutions put a cap on this, but others simply say to consult the course tutor – should be listed.

When both authors are named, the in-text citation will spell out “and” rather than use an ampersand (“&”).

Same Name, Same Year

An exception to only giving the surname of the author is if there are authors with the same surname and publications from the same year. In that case, the author’s initials should be added for clarity . Whether that initial comes before or after the surname, and whether or not it should have a period, will depend upon the university’s style guide. Our general approach is to put a period after an initial, as you would in any writing, but you should go for consistency within the document and flag the issue with a comment.

Multiple Works, Same Author

More frequently, you may come across citations for more than one work by the same author. If they were from different years but cited together, there is no need for the author’s name to be repeated. The years of publication are then listed in reverse chronological order (i.e., the newest comes first) with the years separated by semicolons . Each individual source is then listed in the reference list.

NB: When it comes to the full list of references at the end, the order of sources by the same author is chronological (i.e., with the earliest first).

If, however, the author has multiple works from the same year, a lowercase letter should be added to the year to differentiate the sources. The lettering should be alphabetical in the order that the sources are cited in the text .

NB: The crucial thing to check here is that the same system is reflected in the reference list at the end.

Citing Multiple Sources

If there is more than one source cited in support of a statement (e.g., multiple works by the same author), they will need to be cited in reverse chronological order and separated by semicolons . If the list includes works from the same year , they should be cited alphabetically by author .

NB: If the customer has consistently cited references in chronological order, then you should simply add a note for them to check whether this is what their university requires. Given the many variations on the Harvard theme, this could well be the case.

What if There Isn’t an Author?

You may see cases where the title of the source is given in place of the author. This is likely because the source has no named author (whether individual or corporate). In these cases, using the title of the source (the book, collection, etc.) is an acceptable variation, but it’s advisable to flag it with a comment to make sure.

Secondary Citations

If you’re presented with a reference to a work within a work (i.e., the customer hasn’t read the original but has come across it as a reference in another), this is a secondary citation.

• You should leave a comment suggesting that the customer try to find the original source and refer to that.
• Include the author and year of the original within the in-text citation as well as the author and year of the available source.
• Include in the Reference List only the source that has actually been read (the “available source”).

The Reference List (Or Is It a Bibliography?)

The Harvard style requires a full list of all the sources that are cited within the text to be provided at the end of the document. The standard formatting requirement is to include it on a separate page titled Reference List .

Sometimes, a university will require a list of all the sources considered within a piece of work, even if they haven’t all been cited. This type of list is called a Bibliography .

• The two terms – Reference List and Bibliography – are often confused. When proofreading references, it’s best to flag the issue with a comment pointing out the distinction and recommending that the particular requirements of the university are checked.

In either case, the sources are listed alphabetically by the first item in the source’s full reference (usually the author’s surname). A corporate author or title of a work (if that comes first) starting with “The,” “A,” or “An” should be listed as if that word weren’t there (e.g., a source from the Open University would be listed under “O,” not “T”).

• The easiest fix that you may need to make to a reference list (of whatever description) is ensuring that it is sorted alphabetically by the first item in each reference. This can be done automatically using a simple tool in Word .
• Where there are multiple sources by the same author, they should be listed chronologically with the earliest first (note that this is the reverse of the principle for in-text citations). NB: If the customer has presented the list consistently, don’t make any amendments. Just leave a comment for them to check that their approach is in line with the expectations of their university.

Detailing the sources in a reference list is probably the biggest cause of headaches for both writers and proofreaders. This is because the particular requirements differ depending on the type of source – and there are many .

The information itself is usually straightforward; it’s the formatting that gets tricky. In general terms, you could use the following as a checklist:

Let’s start with the most common types and see how those translate from in-text citations to full reference listings so that you can easily recognize them and, if necessary, fix them.

Printed Media

These sources are most likely to follow the general checklist given above. Within the list, “year of publication” is abbreviated to “year.” For particular issues relating to authors and years, please refer to the notes on in-text citations.

Audiovisual Media

Here’s where things start to get different.

• For movies, TV shows, and the like, the title of the work is foremost and determines the position of the source in the list of full references.
• It’s the director of a film who is credited, not the writer, and they get full billing (i.e., full name); it may help to remember that the big Oscar awards are for Best Film and Best Director, not (sadly) the film’s writer.
• The type of audiovisual media is given in square brackets after the title, followed by a period.
• The distribution details take the place of the publishing details.

Online Sources

Some additional information is required here, most commonly:

• As with audiovisual media, an indication in square brackets that the source is online.
• The URL where the source is available.
• The date when your customer accessed the source – because websites tend to be updated. This information is given in parentheses and comes last in the full reference. The final period is outside the closing bracket.

Some Specifics

With a wealth of sources available, there will always be something that doesn’t quite fit with the general principals. At the end of this guide is an alphabetical list of some you may come across and how they may appear ( remembering that there may be variations between universities ).

The aim of the list is to provide a baseline so that you know the main elements to expect. Consistency of presentation is key, as is the use of the commenting tool to point out where information may be missing – or the format may require checking with the university’s own preferences.

What to Do When the Customer’s Approach Differs

To summarize, the Harvard referencing style can be – and is – interpreted in a wide variety of ways. We’ve set out the Proofed standard approach, so here’s what to do when it almost inevitably differs from the approach taken by the customer:

• Look to see whether the customer has provided a specific version of Harvard to follow.
• If so, find that online (almost every university makes its referencing guide available on its website, and those are generally easy to search for).
• Follow the customer’s lead unless it’s inconsistent, goes against the version they’ve specified, or is otherwise contrary to the Harvard approach (e.g., if they use footnotes or don’t provide the author–date information within the text).
• Acknowledge that variations to the Harvard style exist. Apply consistency to the document and leave a comment to explain the approach you have taken.
• Contact Editor Support if you are still unsure.

But What About…?

• As may be seen in the listing for an encyclopedia, this should be recorded as an additional piece of information within the full reference for the source (it will not affect the in-text citation). The edition number (abbreviated to “edn”) should come after the main title of the book, be separated from the surrounding details by commas, and formatted with a roman font:

• Start on a new line.
• Be indented as a block (hence the name).
• Not have quote marks.
• Be preceded by a colon.
• If the author’s name is in the introductory text, then the year of publication goes in brackets right after the name.
• Otherwise, the author–year citation will be included in round brackets after the block quote.
• Where the author–year citation isn’t mentioned in the text, authorities vary on whether the citation should be on a separate line, left indented to match the block quote, right indented, or at the end of the quote before the period (as it would appear if in the regular text). In such cases, first check for consistency within the document, and then leave a comment for the customer to check that the approach taken is in line with their university’s preference.
• With the word “Figure” or “Table” (with a capital letter).
• Followed by a number, starting with 1, in the order that they appear (NB: in a dissertation or thesis, the number may refer to the chapter in which it appears – e.g., Figure 3.5 may refer to the fifth figure in Chapter 3).
• Then a title (caption) for the figure or table.
• Followed by the in-text citation for the reference of the source.
• The source of the figure or table (e.g., journal, book, website) should then be given in the reference list.

What Does the Proofreading Service Include for Referencing?

• Check that references and citations are in accordance with the customer’s version of Harvard. When in doubt, go for consistency and leave a note to explain your approach.
• It is the job of the customer to make sure that all the citations appear in the reference list and vice versa, but if you spot that something is missing, point it out with a comment.
• There is no need to check that the dates and spellings of author names match for each in-text citation and corresponding full reference; however, if you do see an issue along these lines, point it out in a comment and ask the customer to check the original source.
• Check whether all the expected elements of a full reference are present (which will depend upon the type of source), including the relevant font style and correct use of quotes, capitalization, and italics. Note any missing information in a comment for the customer.
• If available, check with the customer’s version of Harvard to see how the reference list or bibliography should be presented (e.g., title, on a separate page, with hanging indents).

What Does the Formatting Service Include for Referencing?

• Harvard doesn’t have any specific formatting requirements, so follow the Proofed house style unless otherwise indicated in the customer’s style guide.

What Falls Outside the Scope of Both?

The main purpose of referencing is for writers to avoid plagiarism. For that same reason, there is a limit on what can be done for a customer.

• Do not add or change information within an in-text citation or reference unless there is an obvious typo.
• Do not add citations or references, even if they seem to be missing; leave a comment instead.
• Don’t fill in missing information; leave a comment about what appears to be missing and provide information about how the reference could be written to accommodate it (e.g., “n.d.” if the date is unknown).
• There is no need to check URLs; if they appear incomplete, leave a comment for the customer to check them.
• You should read through direct quotes to check that the surrounding text leads to the quote appropriately and to correct any typos or obvious errors, such as additional spaces. If there looks to be an error or inconsistency, leave a comment for the customer to check the original source; it would be risky to try to fix it without access to the source itself.
• Don’t guess at which of two inconsistent names or dates may be correct; point the anomaly out to the customer and ask them to check the source.

List of Example References

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How to Use an Appendix

Last Updated: April 1, 2024 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Annaliese Dunne and by wikiHow staff writer, Danielle Blinka, MA, MPA . Annaliese Dunne is a Middle School English Teacher. With over 10 years of teaching experience, her areas of expertise include writing and grammar instruction, as well as teaching reading comprehension. She is also an experienced freelance writer. She received her Bachelor's degree in English. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 83,635 times.

You’ve probably seen an appendix (or appendices) at the end of an academic paper. However, you might be unsure of how to include them in your own work. When you’re writing an academic paper, you can use an appendix to add important information that doesn’t fit into your paper. You might include your research materials, raw data, or detailed information that’s good to know but not necessary for readers to understand.

Things You Should Know

• Format your appendix in traditional paragraph style, and put each appendix on a separate page.
• Label all your figures, tables, and visuals with the letter of the corresponding appendix, and number the elements within each appendix to make it clear what you’re referring to.
• Refer to each appendix in the text of your paper, and put your appendices in the order that they’re mentioned.

Deciding When to Use an Appendix

• Surveys or questionnaires you used in your research
• Copies of letters or emails
• Transcripts from interviews

• Important words that need to be defined
• Further description of the testing methods or process for choosing a particular testing method
• A detailed description of the materials or testing equipment you used
• Interesting details that might interest the reader but aren’t necessary to understand your conclusions
• Additional background about your topic

• For instance, you might include your raw data in 1 appendix and your mathematical proofs in a separate appendix.

• For example, let’s say you conducted an environmental study. You might include a map of the area you studied.
• Similarly, you might include a photo of your lab setup for a chemistry experiment.

Formatting Appendices

• For instance, let’s say you want to create appendices for a questionnaire, emails you exchanged with an expert on your topic, and raw data from an experiment you did. You’d need 3 separate appendices.

• For instance, Appendix A might be on pg. 23, Appendix B may be on pg. 25, and Appendix C could be on pg. 26.
• If you have 3 or fewer short appendices, you may decide to include them on the same page. However, it’s easier for readers to scan them if they’re on separate pages.

• You don’t need to describe what’s included in the appendix in the title.

Variation: You can use numbers if you prefer. You might choose to label multiple appendices “Appendix 1,” “Appendix 2,” Appendix 3,” and so on. [8] X Research source

• For instance, you might have an “Appendix A,” Appendix B,” and Appendix C” at the end of your paper. Similarly, you could write, “Appendix 1,” Appendix 2,” and “Appendix 3.”

• For instance, you might start over with “Appendix Table 1” or “Appendix Figure A.”
• If a particular table or graph is necessary for your reader to understand your conclusions, include in your paper rather than an appendix.

Inserting Appendices into Your Paper

• For instance, when discussing survey results, you might include this text: “See Appendix A for a copy of the survey.”

• For example, let’s say you have an appendix for a survey, an appendix for your raw data, and an appendix for an interview transcript. If you reference the interview first, followed by the survey and data, you’d put the appendices in that order.

• Check the instructions from your instructor or the journal where you’re submitting to see if they have specific rules about where the appendices should be placed.

• For instance, if your paper ended on page 22, your first appendix would be page 23.

• You don't need a table of contents to have appendices.

Expert Q&A

• You can typically use an appendix for information or materials that mess up your paper structure. For instance, putting a copy of a survey in your paper would likely throw off the format of the paper. [16] X Research source
• If information is essential for your reader to know, include it in the body of your paper instead of an appendix. [17] X Research source
• Don’t include your appendices in your word count.

Expert Interview

Thanks for reading our article! If you’d like to learn more about writing, check out our in-depth interview with Annaliese Dunne .

• ↑ https://www.une.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/392156/WE_Appendices.pdf
• ↑ https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/appendices
• ↑ https://library.sacredheart.edu/c.php?g=29803&p=185936
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/subject_specific_writing/writing_in_the_social_sciences/writing_in_psychology_experimental_report_writing/tables_appendices_footnotes_and_endnotes.html
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa_style/apa_formatting_and_style_guide/footnotes_appendices.html
• ↑ https://www.unlv.edu/sites/default/files/page_files/3/13_AppendixFormat.pdf

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The Harvard referencing style is a widely used system for citing and referencing sources in academic writing. It provides a consistent and standardized format for acknowledging the works of others that you have used in your research.

Struggling to remember tricky peculiarities of Harvard style referencing and formatting? Don’t worry, you have come across a helpful material. In this article, you will find the basics of Harvard style formatting which would be useful for your academic progress. This easy but detailed Harvard style guide contains all format requirements for a paper and some structural tips. Besides, it covers general rules on how to cite your sources properly in your text. Feel free to use these guidelines for your academic endeavors. Let us go through details of Harvard style referencing and formatting together!  

If you have questions, please visit our FAQ section or contact our expert writers. They will gladly help you create references in line with all requirements. On top of that, our writers are highly experienced in academic writing and can assist you with any type of formatting.  

FAQ About Harvard Format

1. is harvard reference style used in colleges.

The Harvard style can be used in colleges as well as in other educational institutions and even by professional researchers. While it is relatively popular in many countries for research paper referencing, Harvard style is most widespread in universities of the UK nowadays. Other styles (APA, MLA and Chicago) dominate the US educational institutions.

2. What is the difference between Harvard and Oxford referencing styles?

The Harvard style format is a typical example of an author-date system as it requires using author’s names and publication dates for in-text referencing. You should create a complete reference list as a separate section in the end of your research paper. The Oxford style on the contrary uses numbered footnotes for citing sources used on your page. In-text citations on this page consist just from numbers of respective notes.  

Emma Flores knows all about formatting standards. She shares with StudyCrumb readers tips on creating academic papers that will meet high-quality standards.

Harvard style is an author-date system of referencing. It’s similar to an  APA paper format  in terms of general formatting of pages and text. But this style follows its own rules for bibliography and in-text citations formatting. Harvard style is typically used for essays in such academic disciplines:  

But this doesn’t mean you can’t use this paper format in other areas of study. The general rule is to put references to your sources in round brackets. Specify author’s name and publication year. These references should come after your quotes (direct or indirect) in the end of a respective sentence or paragraph. Full details about all sources you have used should be provided at the end of your work. This section should be named ‘Reference List’. Buy coursework or any other type of research paper that will be referenced for you by our experts. 

Let us explore some general rules for Harvard formatting:

A Harvard style citation  must have a Title page, header (or running head), headings and Reference list. We will take a closer look at formatting each section down below.  

What are the requirements for a Harvard style cover page? Title page is otherwise known as front page. This is the first page of your paper to be observed by your reader, i.e. your teacher first of all. Therefore, it is highly important to format it properly. Formatting rules for Harvard Title page:  

See the sample of a Harvard title page down below.

An important detail: you are required to use a header in  Harvard referencing  format. This section is repeatedly shown on all pages of your paper except the title page. You have to configure it once. Then, headers will get automatically added on each new page. Headers in Harvard referencing format contains such information:  

It is important to use shortened title because there is not too much space in any header. Also, another requirement is putting exactly 5 spaces between your title and a page number in headers.

Now let us explore some rules of using subheadings in Harvard style, in detail. Typically there are 2 levels of section headings recommended for use in such papers. They have different formatting. This helps to tell one from another, without using different font sizes for them.

The plain text of any paragraph should go on a new line after subheadings in Harvard style, be it Level-1 or Level-2 subheading.

Listing all sources you have used for your research in a proper order is a core element of Harvard style. Reference list should be the last part of your paper but absolutely not the least. Now let us explore some critical rules for a reference list formatting. The Harvard-style reference list section has its own subtitle, namely ‘Reference List’. Similarly to a Level-1 subheading, it should be capitalized and centered. The rest of your content in this section goes from a new line after your title. No extra empty lines are to be added. Your references in this list are numbered and sorted alphabetically. No lines are indented. Each item in this list starts from a new line. Below we will describe a format for referencing in detail.  

Sometimes your professor or instructor might ask you to create a Bibliography section instead of a common Reference list. So what is the Harvard Bibliography format? Harvard style bibliography includes not only those sources you have cited in your text but also. It also includes materials which you have read to get ideas for your research and to better understand the context of a selected problem. So, such section would contain more items than a Reference list. Apart of that, the general Harvard Bibliography format is the same:  

Another crucial element of Harvard style is referring to your sources inside your essay. That’s why you should know how to cite in Harvard style. Keep in mind that the main purpose of a proper format is to ensure your paper is plagiarizm-free. Sometimes, you should cite ideas from books, magazines or newspapers. But you can only refer to such ideas, otherwise it will be considered a form of plagiarism. Below we will show you how to cite in Harvard style, providing general information about published sources. So let us proceed and learn more about shortened quotes and full references.  

Here are the rules of Harvard format in-text citation:

And this is how you should be referencing in Harvard style, providing full descriptions of the sources you have used. Let us start with the general book format:

Here are several Harvarvard referencing rules for other source types:

In this article we have explored the Harvard referencing guide, one of the most popular ones for students in the UK. Feel free to use these tips and proceed to writing a winning essay with flawless formatting! Just keep in mind the following key concepts of the Harvard style:

In conclusion, consider our  custom term paper writing solution if you lack the time or got into writer's block.

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• Font: Times New Roman or Arial
• Size: 12 pt
• Text: double-spaced and left-aligned
• Indent: first line of a paragraph has indent of 0.5 inch
• Margins: 1 inch from each side
• Paper title is fully capitalised and centered. Should be placed at approximately 33% of your page counting from its top.
• Your name as an author, centered and placed at the middle of your page.
• Course name at approximately 66% of the page.
• Instructor’s name on a new line.
• University’s name.
• Submission date.
• Page number, right aligned
• Shortened title of your paper, not capitalized, right-aligned, to the left of page number.
• Level-1 subheadings for a bigger section. They must be centered, capitalized, but at the same time not indented, not bold, not underscored, not italicized.
• Level-2 subheading for any subsection, typically 1-2 paragraphs. They must be capitalized, left-aligned, not indented. Besides, they should be italicized.
• Heading, ‘Bibliography’ is formatted the same way as a Level-1 subheading
• Sources are put into alphabetical order
• List is double-spaced
• Lines do not have any indent
• Each item of this list starts from a new line.
• Add them in parentheses, usually at the end of quotes.
• Put an author’s last name and a publication year into round brackets, add page number if needed.
• When quoting a web page, give a paragraph number instead of a page since many websites don’t divide text into pages.
• Direct citation requires quotation marks and a page number is mandatory in parenthesis
• If you have mentioned an author’s name in your quote, do not include it into brackets, just leave a year and a page numbers there.
• Sometimes you might need to quote two different sources at once. In such case include both into the same parenthesis and divide them by a semicolon.
• Last name of the author followed by comma and initials
• If there are multiple authors, their names are separated with comma, except the last one which must be separated by ‘&’
• Year of publication follows, without a comma
• A full title of the book is given, italicized
• Publisher name
• City and country where this book was published are the last to be provided.
• Refer to an edited book by putting ‘(ed.)’ or ‘(eds)’ after the editor name(s)
• If a book was translated, add ‘trans. I Lastname’
• Refer to an article in any book or journal by adding an article name in quotation marks but not italicized
• Refer to a website by adding ‘viewed’ and the date when you’ve opened it, followed by the URL in angle brackets.
• Title or cover page
• Headers and their contents
• Subheadings of two levels with different formatting
• Reference list with full-detailed description of sources
• In-text citations with lots of different forms for various quote types.

Reference Harvard Style: Basics

Harvard format: general requirements, harvard style title page, formatting a header in harvard, harvard style heading, harvard reference list, harvard style bibliography, harvard style citations: general rules, how to quote in harvard style, creating references in harvard style, bottom line.

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Harvard Referencing Guide

Reference list, references or bibliography.

References or bibliography usually appear at the end of your work. However, do you know which heading you use?

References – a list of all the references you cited in your essay, report or document. This is the heading required by the Harvard style.

Bibliography – most commonly refers to a list containing the sources used in developing a publication and any other sources the author considers might be of use or interests to readers, or including all the sources you read (but not cited) in preparing their work. This heading may be used in more substantial publications (e.g. theses, books, etc.).

The reference list should identify an item (e.g. book, journal article, DVD, report, web document etc.) in enough details so that others can locate and consult it. The general layout for a Reference List is outlined below:

• The reference list usually appears at the end of the document. However any appendices will appear after the reference list.
• It is headed by the centred title References.
• References cited in text must appear in the reference list and vice versa. The only exceptions to this rule are personal communication, dictionary and encyclopedia entries - these are also cited in text only and are not included in the reference list.

Reference entries

• Arrange reference entries in one alphabetical sequence by the surname of the first author or organisational name, or by the first word of the title if there is no author. Ignore the words A, An, and The when alphabetising by title.
• Start each reference with a new line, no indentation.
• Titles should have minimal capitalisation, following this general rule: only capitalise the first letter of the first word and all proper nouns. Subtitles should be lower case except for all proper nouns. Journal titles should use maximal capitalisation (see examples).
• Titles are italicised unless they are a component of a larger work, then the larger work is italicised and the smaller work is within single quotes (see example).
•  Place of publication: only include the place of publication if it is useful for the reader. More info on this here . Use only the first listed place when there are multiple places of publication. If a publication place is little known or shares its name, you can add the state or country.
• Page numbers are placed directly after a colon   without any spacing and multiple pages are separated with a dash, e.g. :112 or :13-15

Author Names

• Use only the initial(s) of the author’s given name, not the full name. No comma between surname and initial(s), no spacing between initials.
• Two or more entries by the same author(s) - list them in chronological order with the earliest first. The name of the author can be repeated but it is preferable to use a 2-em rule (see below). Works published in the same year by the author are listed alphabetically according to the title of the work, and a lower-case letter (a, b, c, ...) is added to the date, e.g. 1988a, 1988b.

The 2-em rule

The 2-em rule is used to avoid repeating an author's name when more than one work by the same author is listed in the reference list ( Style manual  2002, p. 107):

     Campbell JY and Shiller RJ (1987) 'Cointegration and tests of present value      models',  Journal of Political Economy , 95(5):1062-88.

     —— (1988a) 'The dividend-price ratio and expectations of future dividends      and discount factors',  Review of Financial Studies , 1(3):195-228.

     —— (1988b) 'Stock prices, earnings, and expected dividends',  The Journal      of Finance , 43(3):661-76.

     —— (1991) 'Yield spreads and interest rate movements: a bird's eye view',      The Review of Economic Studies , 58(3):495-514.

Example reference list

This is a sample references list in Harvard style,  The format of the reference list for your specific assessment tasks may differ from the sample - please follow the instructions from your lecturers.

• Harvard - Sample Reference list

List of abbreviations and expressions

Acceptable abbreviations and expressions to use in citations and reference list include the following:.

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Southern Cross University acknowledges and pays respect to the ancestors, Elders and descendants of the Lands upon which we meet and study. We are mindful that within and without the buildings, these Lands always were and always will be Aboriginal Land.

Harvard Referencing

• Summarising/Paraphrasing
• Citations/Direct Quotations
• Books (print or online)
• Electronic Journal Article
• Website/Web Document
• Journal/Magazine Article
• Academic publications
• Audiovisual material
• News Article (print or online)
• Figures/Tables
• Public documents
• Performance
• Reference List Example
• More Information

Figures & Graphs

Figures include diagrams and all types of graphs. An i m a ge,  photo, illustration or screenshot  displayed for scientific purposes is classed as a figure.

All figures in your paper must be referred to in the main body of the text. At the bottom of the figure is the title, explaining what the figure is showing and  the legend, i.e. an explanation of what the symbols, acronyms or  colours  mean.

In-text citation:

The in-text reference is placed beneath the legend and title with the heading 'Figure' and starts with a sequential figure number (e.g. Figure 1, Figure 2). 

Figure 1: PHYSICAL PRODUCTION, selected commodities, Australia, 2010-11 to 2015-16 ( Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics 2017)

If the source is from a book or journal (print or electronic) or from a web document with page numbers, add the page number to the in-text citation. 

If the figure is altered in any way from the original source, add 'Modified from source', eg.

(Modified from source: Australian Bureau of Statistics 2017)

In main text:

Production of sugar in Australia was estimated at 34 million tonnes in 2015-16 (Figure 1). 

Reference list:

References should be listed in the Harvard Referencing Style according to format. 

Australian Bureau of Statistics 2017, Crops and plantations , Retrieved: 24 February, 2018 from  http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/Latestproducts/4632.0.55.001Main%20Features302015-16?opendocument&tabname=Summary&prodno=4632.0.55.001&issue=2015-16&num=&view=

Tables are numerical values or text displayed in rows and columns.

Each table should be displayed with a brief explanatory title at the top. 

Number all tables in the order they appear in the text.

Table 27.4 Immunity to selected bacterial infections

( Source: Knox et al. 2014, p. 669. )

If the table is altered in any way from the original source, add 'Modified from source'.

(Modified from source: Knox et al.  2014,  p. 669. )

Some bacteria, like those that cause tuberculosis, have evolved the means of surviving and living within phagocytic macrophages (Table 27.4). 

As Table 27.4 shows, some bacteria , like those that cause tuberculosis, have evolved the means of surviving an d living within phagocytic macrophages. 

Knox, B., Ladiges, P., Evans, B. & Saint, R. 2014,  Biology: an Australian focus , 5th edn,  McGraw-Hill Education, North Ryde, NSW.

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• Referencing and plagiarism

Quick guide to Harvard referencing (Cite Them Right)

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There are different versions of the Harvard referencing style. This guide is a quick introduction to the commonly-used Cite Them Right version. You will find further guidance available through the OU Library on the Cite Them Right Database .

For help and support with referencing and the full Cite Them Right guide, have a look at the Library’s page on referencing and plagiarism . If you need guidance referencing OU module material you can check out which sections of Cite Them Right are recommended when referencing physical and online module material .

This guide does not apply to OU Law undergraduate students . If you are studying a module beginning with W1xx, W2xx or W3xx, you should refer to the Quick guide to Cite Them Right referencing for Law modules .

Table of contents

In-text citations and full references.

• Secondary referencing
• Page numbers
• Citing multiple sources published in the same year by the same author

Full reference examples

Referencing consists of two elements:

• in-text citations, which are inserted in the body of your text and are included in the word count. An in-text citation gives the author(s) and publication date of a source you are referring to. If the publication date is not given, the phrase 'no date' is used instead of a date. If using direct quotations or you refer to a specific section in the source you also need the page number/s if available, or paragraph number for web pages.
• full references, which are given in alphabetical order in a  reference list at the end of your work and are not included in the word count. Full references give full bibliographical information for all the sources you have referred to in the body of your text.

To see a reference list and intext citations check out this example assignment on Cite Them Right .

Difference between reference list and bibliography

a reference list only includes sources you have referred to in the body of your text.

a bibliography includes sources you have referred to in the body of your text AND sources that were part of your background reading that you did not use in your assignment.

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Examples of in-text citations

You need to include an in-text citation wherever you quote or paraphrase from a source. An in-text citation consists of the last name of the author(s), the year of publication, and a page number if relevant. There are a number of ways of incorporating in-text citations into your work - some examples are provided below. Alternatively you can see examples of setting out in-text citations in Cite Them Right .

Example with one author:

Almeroth-Williams, T. (2019) City of Beasts: How Animals Shaped Georgian London . Manchester: Manchester University Press.

RSPCA (2024) Caring for cats and kittens . Available at: https://www.rspca.org.uk/adviceandwelfare/pets/cats (Accessed: 1 August 2024).

Example with two or three authors:

Grayling, A. and Ball, B. (2024) ' Philosophy is crucial in the age of AI', The Conversation , 1 August. Available at: https://theconversation.com/philosophy-is-crucial-in-the-age-of-ai-235907 (Accessed: 1 August 2024).

Chu, M., Leonard, P. and Stevenson, F. (2012) ' Growing the Base for Citizen Science: Recruiting and Engaging Participants', in J.L. Dickinson and R. Bonney (eds.) Citizen Science: Public Participation in Environmental Research . Ithaca: Cornell University Press, pp. 69-81.

Example with four or more authors:

Young, H.D. et al. (2015) Sears and Zemansky's university physics . San Francisco, CA: Addison-Wesley.

Note: You can choose one or other method to reference four or more authors (unless your School requires you to name all authors in your reference list) and your approach should be consistent.

Online module materials

(Includes written online module activities, audio-visual material such as online tutorials, recordings or videos).

When referencing material from module websites, the date of publication is the year you started studying the module.

Surname, Initial. (Year of publication/presentation) 'Title of item'. Module code: Module title . Available at: URL of VLE (Accessed: date).

OR, if there is no named author:

The Open University (Year of publication/presentation) 'Title of item'. Module code: Module title . Available at: URL of VLE (Accessed: date).

Rietdorf, K. and Bootman, M. (2022) 'Topic 3: Rare diseases'. S290: Investigating human health and disease . Available at: https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=1967195 (Accessed: 24 January 2023).

The Open University (2022) ‘3.1 The purposes of childhood and youth research’. EK313: Issues in research with children and young people . Available at: https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=1949633&section=1.3 (Accessed: 24 January 2023).

You can also use this template to reference videos and audio that are hosted on your module website:

The Open University (2022) ‘Video 2.7 An example of a Frith-Happé animation’. SK298: Brain, mind and mental health . Available at: https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=2013014&section=4.9.6 (Accessed: 22 November 2022).

The Open University (2022) ‘Audio 2 Interview with Richard Sorabji (Part 2)’. A113: Revolutions . Available at: https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=1960941&section=5.6 (Accessed: 22 November 2022).

Note: if a complete journal article has been uploaded to a module website, or if you have seen an article referred to on the website and then accessed the original version, reference the original journal article, and do not mention the module materials. If only an extract from an article is included in your module materials that you want to reference, you should use secondary referencing, with the module materials as the 'cited in' source, as described above.

Surname, Initial. (Year of publication) 'Title of message', Title of discussion board , in Module code: Module title . Available at: URL of VLE (Accessed: date).

Fitzpatrick, M. (2022) ‘A215 - presentation of TMAs', Tutor group discussion & Workbook activities , in A215: Creative writing . Available at: https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/forumng/discuss.php?d=4209566 (Accessed: 24 January 2022).

Note: When an ebook looks like a printed book, with publication details and pagination, reference as a printed book.

Surname, Initial. (Year of publication) Title . Edition if later than first. Place of publication: publisher. Series and volume number if relevant.

For ebooks that do not contain print publication details

Surname, Initial. (Year of publication) Title of book . Available at: DOI or URL (Accessed: date).

Bell, J. (2014) Doing your research project . Maidenhead: Open University Press.

Adams, D. (1979) The hitchhiker's guide to the galaxy . Available at: http://www.amazon.co.uk/kindle-ebooks (Accessed: 23 June 2021).

Note: Books that have an editor, or editors, where each chapter is written by a different author or authors.

Surname of chapter author, Initial. (Year of publication) 'Title of chapter or section', in Initial. Surname of book editor (ed.) Title of book . Place of publication: publisher, Page reference.

Franklin, A.W. (2012) 'Management of the problem', in S.M. Smith (ed.) The maltreatment of children . Lancaster: MTP, pp. 83–95.

Note: When referencing a chapter of an edited book, your in-text citation should give the author(s) of the chapter.

Surname, Initial. (Year of publication) 'Title of article', Title of Journal , volume number (issue number), page reference.

If accessed online:

Surname, Initial. (Year of publication) 'Title of article', Title of Journal , volume number (issue number), page reference. Available at: DOI or URL (if required) (Accessed: date).

Shirazi, T. (2010) 'Successful teaching placements in secondary schools: achieving QTS practical handbooks', European Journal of Teacher Education , 33(3), pp. 323–326.

Shirazi, T. (2010) 'Successful teaching placements in secondary schools: achieving QTS practical handbooks', European Journal of Teacher Education , 33(3), pp. 323–326. Available at: https://libezproxy.open.ac.uk/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/log... (Accessed: 27 January 2023).

Barke, M. and Mowl, G. (2016) 'Málaga – a failed resort of the early twentieth century?', Journal of Tourism History , 2(3), pp. 187–212. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/1755182X.2010.523145

Surname, Initial. (Year of publication) 'Title of article', Title of Newspaper , Day and month, Page reference.

Surname, Initial. (Year of publication) 'Title of article', Title of Newspaper , Day and month, Page reference if available. Available at: URL (Accessed: date).

Mansell, W. and Bloom, A. (2012) ‘£10,000 carrot to tempt physics experts’, The Guardian , 20 June, p. 5.

Roberts, D. and Ackerman, S. (2013) 'US draft resolution allows Obama 90 days for military action against Syria', The Guardian , 4 September. Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/sep/04/syria-strikes-draft-resolut... (Accessed: 9 September 2015).

Surname, Initial. (Year that the site was published/last updated) Title of web page . Available at: URL (Accessed: date).

Organisation (Year that the page was last updated) Title of web page . Available at: URL (Accessed: date).

Robinson, J. (2007) Social variation across the UK . Available at: https://www.bl.uk/british-accents-and-dialects/articles/social-variation... (Accessed: 21 November 2021).

The British Psychological Society (2018) Code of Ethics and Conduct . Available at: https://www.bps.org.uk/news-and-policy/bps-code-ethics-and-conduct (Accessed: 22 March 2019).

Note: Cite Them Right Online offers guidance for referencing webpages that do not include authors' names and dates. However, be extra vigilant about the suitability of such webpages.

Surname, Initial. (Year) Title of photograph . Available at: URL (Accessed: date).

Kitton, J. (2013) Golden sunset . Available at: https://www.jameskittophotography.co.uk/photo_8692150.html (Accessed: 21 November 2021).

stanitsa_dance (2021) Cossack dance ensemble . Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/COI_slphWJ_/ (Accessed: 13 June 2023).

Note: If no title can be found then replace it with a short description.

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Where does an appendix go in my assignment? Last Updated: 09.Apr.2022 Views: 1207

You should always check with your tutor in case they have any specific preferences, but as a general rule the appendix (plural = appendices)  goes after the reference list or bibliography in your assignment . this places it as the last thing within your assignment. .

Appendices should only be used to give supplementary information i.e. data or details that aren’t essential to your work but which could provide useful context or background material. These may include figures/tables/charts/graphs of results, statistics, questionnaires, transcripts of interviews, pictures, lengthy derivations of equations, maps, drawings, letters, specification or data sheets, or computer program information.

Appendices should not be used as a means to reduce your word count. Any points which are critical to your argument need to be in the main body of your work otherwise they may not be marked.

When adding an appendix, each separate item should be labelled with a letter or number, along with a title or caption (Appendix A: Questionnaire Responses, Appendix B: Test Results, etc.) If the information included in your appendix has come from another source, please remember to include appropriate citations and ensure the full reference details appear in a reference list or bibliography. Works cited in appendices, but not in the main body of your text, should be included in a separate reference list at the end of your appendix.

In the main body of your essay, you should indicate when you’re referring to an appendix by citing it. For example: The interviews show that most students find academic writing difficult to begin with (see Appendix D for full transcripts).

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How To Craft An Ivy League-Worthy Activities List

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Brown University

Do Ivy League schools really care about your extracurricular activities? The answer is emphatically yes .

Ivy League colleges seek to admit students who are specialists in their fields of interest and will put their passions to positive use in their future communities. While grades, test scores, and a rigorous course load convey your academic interests and skill set to top colleges, your activities list goes a long way in communicating what you truly value and what kind of community member you will be on your future college campus. For this reason, the Common App activities list is one of the most critical components of your college application—a thoughtfully crafted activities list paints a picture of your commitment to your passions, your leadership abilities, and your history of enacting positive change in your environment.

With the school year quickly approaching, students should use the remaining weeks of summer to start crafting their activities lists , taking advantage of their free time before the demands of the school year ramp up. By using this time to strategize and thoughtfully map out your activities list, you can put your best foot forward to Ivy League admissions officers and distinguish yourself in a sea of talented applicants. Here are three key strategies to ensure that your activities list showcases your talents and stands out to top schools:

1. Use Your Activities List To Demonstrate Your Hook

Every element of a student’s application, from their essays to their transcript and letters of recommendation, should coalesce around their hook—and the activities list is no different. A hook is a unique passion, skill, or area of interest that a student hones over the course of their high school career; it is the special X factor that sets them apart from the pack. While your essays tell admissions officers about your passions in your unique voice, your activities list provides an overview of how you have spent your time over the past four years, each activity acting as a piece of a puzzle that tells your broader story. As such, it is critical that students use their activities list to clearly convey their core passion and show how they have engaged with it in tangible ways.

For example, if your hook is in biomolecular sciences and cancer research, you should be able to demonstrate that interest through activities like working as a professor’s research assistant at a medical school or research institute, taking related classes at a college or university, or writing about cancer research-related topics in your school newspaper. Alternatively, if your hook is in environmental advocacy, your list should include activities such as leading a local environmental club, organizing community clean-up events, or conducting research on sustainable practices. This coherence not only makes your application more compelling, but also works in support of your long-term goals and informs the unique perspective you bring as a candidate.

2. Be Specific About Your Contributions

Admissions officers not only want to see what activities students have been involved in, but also how they actively contributed as group members and leaders. The language you use in your activities list can significantly influence how your involvement is understood. Therefore, when describing each activity, be specific about your role and the impact you made. Instead of simply stating that you were a member of the debate team, highlight your achievements, such as winning regional championships or mentoring five junior members. Use quantifiable data to underscore your impact wherever possible. For instance, “Organized a charity run that raised $5,000 for local shelters" is more impressive and informative than “Organized a charity run.” This level of detail will allow the admissions committee to understand the breadth and depth of your involvement, which can go a long way in distinguishing you from other applicants who participated in similar activities.

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Additionally, active language conveys enthusiasm, initiative, and leadership. Verbs such as “spearheaded,” “executed,” “developed,” “launched,” “advocated,” and “strategized” paint a vivid picture of your initiative and drive. Likewise, avoid passive phrases like “was responsible for” or “helped with,” as they can minimize the significance of your contributions. Using dynamic and active verbs also enhances the readability of your activities list, making it more engaging and memorable for admissions officers.

3. List Your Activities In A Strategic Order

Many students assume that they should list their activities in order of the amount of time they have devoted to each activity, from most to least. However, students should note that the Common App indicates: “Please list your activities in the order of their importance to you.” This means that even if you are a varsity athlete who trains 20+ hours a week, if you plan to apply as a STEM major, you might prioritize listing your research endeavors and internships higher up on your list than your athletic achievements. For instance, you could list your groundbreaking summer research project first, followed by an internship at a tech company, placing your training sessions further down the list. This strategy ensures that your activities list reflects your personal priorities and aligns with your intended major and career goals.

Approaching the activities list with strategy, thoughtful reflection, and a clear sense of one’s central passion will allow students to put their best foot forward to admissions officers at Ivy League and other top schools. Using the remainder of the summer to get ahead on the activities list will give students the time they need to ensure that this component of their application is polished and catches admissions officers’ eyes.

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How to cite ChatGPT

Use discount code STYLEBLOG15 for 15% off APA Style print products with free shipping in the United States.

We, the APA Style team, are not robots. We can all pass a CAPTCHA test , and we know our roles in a Turing test . And, like so many nonrobot human beings this year, we’ve spent a fair amount of time reading, learning, and thinking about issues related to large language models, artificial intelligence (AI), AI-generated text, and specifically ChatGPT . We’ve also been gathering opinions and feedback about the use and citation of ChatGPT. Thank you to everyone who has contributed and shared ideas, opinions, research, and feedback.

In this post, I discuss situations where students and researchers use ChatGPT to create text and to facilitate their research, not to write the full text of their paper or manuscript. We know instructors have differing opinions about how or even whether students should use ChatGPT, and we’ll be continuing to collect feedback about instructor and student questions. As always, defer to instructor guidelines when writing student papers. For more about guidelines and policies about student and author use of ChatGPT, see the last section of this post.

Quoting or reproducing the text created by ChatGPT in your paper

If you’ve used ChatGPT or other AI tools in your research, describe how you used the tool in your Method section or in a comparable section of your paper. For literature reviews or other types of essays or response or reaction papers, you might describe how you used the tool in your introduction. In your text, provide the prompt you used and then any portion of the relevant text that was generated in response.

Unfortunately, the results of a ChatGPT “chat” are not retrievable by other readers, and although nonretrievable data or quotations in APA Style papers are usually cited as personal communications , with ChatGPT-generated text there is no person communicating. Quoting ChatGPT’s text from a chat session is therefore more like sharing an algorithm’s output; thus, credit the author of the algorithm with a reference list entry and the corresponding in-text citation.

When prompted with “Is the left brain right brain divide real or a metaphor?” the ChatGPT-generated text indicated that although the two brain hemispheres are somewhat specialized, “the notation that people can be characterized as ‘left-brained’ or ‘right-brained’ is considered to be an oversimplification and a popular myth” (OpenAI, 2023).

OpenAI. (2023). ChatGPT (Mar 14 version) [Large language model]. https://chat.openai.com/chat

You may also put the full text of long responses from ChatGPT in an appendix of your paper or in online supplemental materials, so readers have access to the exact text that was generated. It is particularly important to document the exact text created because ChatGPT will generate a unique response in each chat session, even if given the same prompt. If you create appendices or supplemental materials, remember that each should be called out at least once in the body of your APA Style paper.

When given a follow-up prompt of “What is a more accurate representation?” the ChatGPT-generated text indicated that “different brain regions work together to support various cognitive processes” and “the functional specialization of different regions can change in response to experience and environmental factors” (OpenAI, 2023; see Appendix A for the full transcript).

Creating a reference to ChatGPT or other AI models and software

The in-text citations and references above are adapted from the reference template for software in Section 10.10 of the Publication Manual (American Psychological Association, 2020, Chapter 10). Although here we focus on ChatGPT, because these guidelines are based on the software template, they can be adapted to note the use of other large language models (e.g., Bard), algorithms, and similar software.

The reference and in-text citations for ChatGPT are formatted as follows:

• Parenthetical citation: (OpenAI, 2023)
• Narrative citation: OpenAI (2023)

Let’s break that reference down and look at the four elements (author, date, title, and source):

Author: The author of the model is OpenAI.

Date: The date is the year of the version you used. Following the template in Section 10.10, you need to include only the year, not the exact date. The version number provides the specific date information a reader might need.

Title: The name of the model is “ChatGPT,” so that serves as the title and is italicized in your reference, as shown in the template. Although OpenAI labels unique iterations (i.e., ChatGPT-3, ChatGPT-4), they are using “ChatGPT” as the general name of the model, with updates identified with version numbers.

The version number is included after the title in parentheses. The format for the version number in ChatGPT references includes the date because that is how OpenAI is labeling the versions. Different large language models or software might use different version numbering; use the version number in the format the author or publisher provides, which may be a numbering system (e.g., Version 2.0) or other methods.

Bracketed text is used in references for additional descriptions when they are needed to help a reader understand what’s being cited. References for a number of common sources, such as journal articles and books, do not include bracketed descriptions, but things outside of the typical peer-reviewed system often do. In the case of a reference for ChatGPT, provide the descriptor “Large language model” in square brackets. OpenAI describes ChatGPT-4 as a “large multimodal model,” so that description may be provided instead if you are using ChatGPT-4. Later versions and software or models from other companies may need different descriptions, based on how the publishers describe the model. The goal of the bracketed text is to briefly describe the kind of model to your reader.

Source: When the publisher name and the author name are the same, do not repeat the publisher name in the source element of the reference, and move directly to the URL. This is the case for ChatGPT. The URL for ChatGPT is https://chat.openai.com/chat . For other models or products for which you may create a reference, use the URL that links as directly as possible to the source (i.e., the page where you can access the model, not the publisher’s homepage).

Other questions about citing ChatGPT

You may have noticed the confidence with which ChatGPT described the ideas of brain lateralization and how the brain operates, without citing any sources. I asked for a list of sources to support those claims and ChatGPT provided five references—four of which I was able to find online. The fifth does not seem to be a real article; the digital object identifier given for that reference belongs to a different article, and I was not able to find any article with the authors, date, title, and source details that ChatGPT provided. Authors using ChatGPT or similar AI tools for research should consider making this scrutiny of the primary sources a standard process. If the sources are real, accurate, and relevant, it may be better to read those original sources to learn from that research and paraphrase or quote from those articles, as applicable, than to use the model’s interpretation of them.

We’ve also received a number of other questions about ChatGPT. Should students be allowed to use it? What guidelines should instructors create for students using AI? Does using AI-generated text constitute plagiarism? Should authors who use ChatGPT credit ChatGPT or OpenAI in their byline? What are the copyright implications ?

On these questions, researchers, editors, instructors, and others are actively debating and creating parameters and guidelines. Many of you have sent us feedback, and we encourage you to continue to do so in the comments below. We will also study the policies and procedures being established by instructors, publishers, and academic institutions, with a goal of creating guidelines that reflect the many real-world applications of AI-generated text.

For questions about manuscript byline credit, plagiarism, and related ChatGPT and AI topics, the APA Style team is seeking the recommendations of APA Journals editors. APA Style guidelines based on those recommendations will be posted on this blog and on the APA Style site later this year.

Update: APA Journals has published policies on the use of generative AI in scholarly materials .

We, the APA Style team humans, appreciate your patience as we navigate these unique challenges and new ways of thinking about how authors, researchers, and students learn, write, and work with new technologies.

American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). https://doi.org/10.1037/0000165-000

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How spammers and scammers leverage AI-generated images on Facebook for audience growth

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Much of the research and discourse on risks from artificial intelligence (AI) image generators, such as DALL-E and Midjourney, has centered around whether they could be used to inject false information into political discourse. We show that spammers and scammers—seemingly motivated by profit or clout, not ideology—are already using AI-generated images to gain significant traction on Facebook. At times, the Facebook Feed is recommending unlabeled AI-generated images to users who neither follow the Pages posting the images nor realize that the images are AI-generated, highlighting the need for improved transparency and provenance standards as AI models proliferate.

Stanford Internet Observatory, Stanford University, USA

Center for Security and Emerging Technology, Georgetown University, USA

Research Questions

• How are profit and clout-motivated Page owners using AI-generated images on Facebook?
• When users see AI-generated images on Facebook, are they aware of the synthetic origins?

Essay Summary

• We studied 125 Facebook Pages that posted at least 50 AI-generated images each, classifying them into spam, scam, and other creator categories. Some were coordinated clusters run by the same administrators. As of April 2024, these Pages had a mean follower count of 146,681 and a median of 81,000.
• These images collectively received hundreds of millions of exposures. In Q3 2023, a post with an AI-generated image was among Facebook’s top 20 most viewed posts, with 40 million views and more than 1.9 million interactions.
• Spam Pages adopted clickbait tactics, directing users to off-platform content farms and low-quality domains. Scam Pages attempted to sell non-existent products or obtain users’ personal details.
• The Facebook Feed (formerly “News Feed”) shows users AI-generated images even when they do not follow the Pages posting those images. We suspect this is because the algorithmic Feed promotes content that is likely to generate engagement. Facebook has increased the percentage of “unconnected posts” (posts that did not come from friends, Pages people followed, or Groups they were a part of) in users’ Feeds over the last three years. 
• Comments on the images suggest that many users are unaware of their synthetic origin, though a subset of comments include text or infographics alerting others and warning of scams. Viewer misperceptions highlight the importance of labeling and transparency measures moving forward.
• Some of the Pages in our sample used known deceptive practices, such as Page theft or takeover, and exhibited suspicious follower growth.

Implications

With the diffusion of new generative AI tools, policymakers, researchers, and the public have expressed concerns about impacts on different facets of society. Existing work has developed taxonomies of misuses and harm (Ferrara, 2024; Weidinger et al., 2022) and tested the potential of AI tools for generating instructions for biological weapons (Mouton et al., 2024), propaganda (Goldstein et al., 2024; Spitale et al., 2023), and phishing content (Grbic & Dujlovic, 2023). A significant portion of this literature is theoretical or lab-based and focused on political speech, such as impacts on elections, threats to democracy, and shared capacity for sensemaking (Seger et al., 2020). 

And yet, even in the realm of the political, the tactics of manipulators have long been previewed by those with a different motivation: making money. Spammers and scammers are often early adopters of new technologies because they stand to profit during the time gap between when technology makes novel, attention-capturing tactics possible and when defenders recognize the dynamics and come up with new policies or interventions to minimize their impact (e.g., Goldstein & DiResta, 2022; Metaxas & DeStefano, 2005). Recall the Macedonian teenagers behind the high-profile “fake news” debacles of 2016: Investigative reports found they used eye-catching content—promoted by Facebook’s recommendation and trending algorithms—to drive users to off-platform websites where they would collect advertising revenue via Google Adsense (e.g., Hughes & Waismel-Manor, 2021; Subramanian 2017).

While the misuse of text-to-image and image-to-image models in politics is worthy of study, so are deceptive, non-political applications. Understanding misuse can shape risk analysis and mitigations. In this article, we show that images from AI models are already being used by spammers, scammers, and other creators running Facebook Pages and are, at times, achieving viral engagement. For the purposes of this study, we describe Pages as “spam” if they post low-effort (e.g., AI-generated or stolen) content at high frequencies and (a) use clickbait tactics to drive people to an outside domain or (b) have inauthentic follower growth (e.g., from fake accounts). We categorized Pages as “scam” if they (a) deceive followers by stealing, buying, or exchanging Page control, (b) falsely claim a name, address, or other identifying feature, and/or (c) sell fake products. Our “other creator” category includes Pages that post AI-generated images at high frequency and are not transparent about the synthetic origin of content, but we do not have clear evidence of manipulative behavior.

We studied 125 spam, scam, and other creator Facebook Pages that shared 50+ AI-generated images to capture the attention of Facebook users. Many of these Pages formed clusters, such as six Pages with more than 400,000 collective followers that declared themselves affiliated with the “Pil&Pet Corporation” in the Intro section of their Pages. The Pil&Pet Pages posted AI-generated images with similar captions and all had Page operators from Armenia, the United States, and Georgia. Some Pages we studied did not declare a mutual affiliation, but posted on highly similar topics, recycled posts, and co-moderated Facebook Groups or shared links to the same domains . Other Pages were not clearly connected to others in the list but used highly similar captions, identical generated images, or images on similar themes. A number of Pages, for example, posted AI-generated images of log cabins. At times, these AI-generated images were recommended to users via Facebook’s Feed (including in our own Feeds). The posts are not transparent about the use of AI and many users do not seem to realize that they are of synthetic origin (Koebler, 2023). Facebook confirmed in a statement to us by email that they have “taken action against those engaged in inauthentic behavior, and demoted the clickbait websites under [their] Content Distribution Guidelines.” 1 The full statement by Meta via email to the authors on April 10, 2024: “We welcome more research into AI and cross-platform inauthentic behavior since deceptive efforts rarely target only one platform. We’ve reviewed the pages in this report and have taken action against those engaged in inauthentic behavior, and demoted the clickbait sites under our Content Distribution Guidelines . We’re also continuing to work with industry partners on common technical standards for identifying and labeling AI-generated content.”The full statement by Meta via email to the authors on April 10, 2024: “We welcome more research into AI and cross-platform inauthentic behavior since deceptive efforts rarely target only one platform. We’ve reviewed the pages in this report and have taken action against those engaged in inauthentic behavior, and demoted the clickbait sites under our Content Distribution Guidelines . We’re also continuing to work with industry partners on common technical standards for identifying and labeling AI-generated content.”

Consequences and recommendations

The Pages we studied may produce direct and indirect negative impact. In terms of direct consequences, we observed unambiguously manipulative behaviors from some of the Page operators, such as Page/account theft and leveraging batches of inauthentic followers to enhance their legitimacy or engage in discourse with content viewers. AI-generated content appears to be a boon for spam and scam actors because the images are easy to generate, often visually sensational, and attract engagement. In terms of indirect consequences, most of the AI-generated images did not include an indication of their synthetic origin. Comments by Facebook users often suggested that they did not recognize the images were fake—congratulating, for example, an AI-generated child for an AI-generated painting. Scam accounts occasionally engaged with credulous commenters on the posts, both in Pages and Groups, at times seeking personal information about them or offering to sell them products that do not exist. The increasing complexity of distinguishing between real and synthetic content online will likely further exacerbate issues with trust in media and information.

To grapple with deceptive AI-generated content, interventions could target at least three different stages: (1) reducing the likelihood that deceptive content reaches end users without notice, (2) decreasing the impact of deceptive content that does reach end users, and (3) measuring real-world use and impact of deceptive AI-generated content on social media platforms. We describe several specific mitigations—improved detection methods, education, and impact assessments—that fall under these three stages, respectively, while recognizing that other approaches can also contribute.

First, social media companies should invest resources in improving detection of scams as well as AI-generated content. For the latter, collaborations between AI developers, social media platforms, and external researchers may be useful for ensuring that the most robust detection mechanisms are deployed in practice. Platforms should test the effect of different interventions for indicating that content is AI-generated (including labeling images they detect, requiring users to proactively label, and rolling out watermarking techniques) (Bickert, 2024) and researchers should investigate whether tech companies are true to the voluntary commitments announced at the 2024 Munich Security Conference (e.g., “attaching provenance signals to identify the origin of content where appropriate and technically feasible”) (Munich Security Conference, 2024). Labeling AI-generated content can decrease deception of social media users, but it could come at a cost if there are high false-positive or false-negative rates.

Second, the media, and AI generation tool creators themselves, should help the public understand AI image generation tools in a manner that is digestible and not sensational. This could include Public Service Announcements that teach that AI-generated images can look photorealistic. Such announcements should learn from recent work on inoculation theory (e.g., Roozenbeek, 2022) and teach proactive user strategies (e.g., lateral reading). This may improve social media users’ discernment of AI-generated images that are implausible and increase the likelihood that they fact-check images against other sources (as it will often not be obvious when seemingly photorealistic images are AI-generated). This should be complemented by teaching people general digital literacy best practices, such as Mike Caufield’s “SIFT” method: Stop, Identify the source, Find better coverage, and Trace claims, quotes, and media to the original context (Caufield, 2019).

Third, researchers should contribute to understanding the effects of AI-generated content on broader information landscapes. Although our study focuses specifically on Facebook, other platforms also face challenges related to AI-generated content. Research has investigated the use of deceptive AI-generated profile pictures on Twitter (Yang et al., 2024) and LinkedIn (Goldstein & DiResta, 2022), and journalists have documented the use of new generative AI tools for spam on TikTok (Koebler, 2024b), scam books on Amazon (Limbong, 2024), and other applications. Accumulation of additional studies through incident databases (e.g., Dixon & Frase, 2024; Walker et al., 2024) can contribute to cross-platform, comparative analysis—such as whether and how the execution of AI-enabled harms varies by affordances of platforms. Studies of real-world use can inform which specific applications require prioritization for detection and educational efforts described above. Another line of research can examine how labeling content as AI-generated affects perceptions of unlabeled content (Jakesch et al., 2019) or interview individuals behind the deceptive use of AI-generated content on social media to better understand their motivations and perceptions of ethics.

Finding 1: Spammers, scammers, and other creators are posting unlabeled AI-generated images that are gaining high volumes of engagement on Facebook. Many users do not seem to recognize that the images are synthetic.

Unlabeled AI-generated images from the Pages we studied amassed a significant number of views and engagements. One way that we discovered Pages deceptively using AI-generated images was by observing repeated caption text across Pages—even Pages that were seemingly unconnected. For example, AI-generated content of old people, amputees, and infants often contained the phrase “No one ever blessed me” in the caption. AI-generated images of people alongside their supposed woodworking or drawings were captioned with variants on “Made it with my own hands”; neither the person depicted nor the art is real. Phrases such as “This is my first cake! I will be glad for your marks” explicitly solicit comment feedback (see Figure 1). Oftentimes these posts received comments of praise. Sometimes the post text made little sense in context; an AI-generated image of Jesus rendered as a crab worshiped by other crabs also proudly declared “Made it with my own hands!” and received 209,000 reactions and more than 4,000 comments (see Figure 2).

Common themes for content across the Pages we studied included AI-generated houses or cabins (43 Pages), AI-generated images of children (28 Pages), AI-generated wood carvings (19 Pages), and AI-generated images of Jesus (13 Pages). We provide examples of other AI-generated images posted by Pages in the dataset with high levels of engagement in Figure 3.

While researchers typically can see the number of engagements a post has (the sum of reactions, comments, and reshares), they do not have access to the number of views. However, view counts do appear for the 20 most viewed pieces of content in a given quarter, available via Facebook Transparency’s Center. One of the 10 most viewed posts in Q3 2023 was an unlabeled AI-generated image from a Page that transitioned from a cooking Page to one showing AI-generated images of kitchens (Figure 4).

Finding 2: The Facebook Feed at times recommends unlabeled AI-generated images to users who do not explicitly follow the Page posting the content.

We suspect these high levels of engagement are partially driven by the Facebook recommendation algorithm. 2 In 2022, Alex Heath reported on an internal memo by Facebook President Tom Allison about planned changes to the algorithm that would “help people find and enjoy interesting content regardless of whether it was produced by someone you’re connected to or not.” According to Heath, it was clear to Meta that to compete with TikTok, it had to compete with the experience of TikTok’s main “For You” Page, which shows people content based on their past viewing habits and anticipated preferences (independent of whether the user follows the creator’s account). Meta’s quarterly “Widely Viewed Content Report: What People See on Facebook” includes a section that breaks out where posts in Feed come from (e.g., from Groups people joined; content their friends shared; sources they aren’t connected to, but Facebook thinks they might be interested in, etc.). 3 We pulled the portion of Feed views from different sources, reported each quarter from Q2 2021 (when Facebook began publishing it) through article drafting in Q3 2023. As shown in Figure 5, the portion of content views from “unconnected posts” (posts from sources users are not connected to) from Facebook algorithm recommendations rose dramatically from 8% in Q2 2021 to 24% in Q3 2023.

After we conducted preliminary research, we began to see an increasing percentage of AI-generated images in our own Feeds, despite not following or liking any of the Pages posting AI-generated images. The algorithm likely expected us to view or engage with AI-generated images because we had clicked on others in the past. Two colleagues who reviewed our work reported that they were shown AI-generated images in their Feed before they even began investigating, and we observed a number of social media users claiming large influxes of AI-generated images in their Facebook Feeds (Koebler, 2024c). For example, Reddit users are discussing their Facebook Feeds with comments such as “Facebook has turned into an endless scroll of Midjourney AI photos and virtually no one appears to have noticed.”

Finding 3: Scam and spam Pages leveraging large numbers of AI-generated images are using well-known deceptive practices, such as Page theft or repurposing, and exhibit suspicious follower growth.

Research into social media influence dynamics has observed that Page growth is a common strategic goal. Obtaining a Page with an existing following provides a ready-made audience that can be monetized. A large follower count increases the perceived credibility of a Page (Phua & Ahn, 2016), so fake engagement is also used to create this perception. Some of the Facebook Pages we analyzed used tried-and-true tactics along these lines: 50 had changed their names, often from an entirely different subject, and some displayed a massive jump in followers after the name change (but prior to new activity that would organically have produced that follower spike).

Take, for example, the Page “Life Nature.” The Page was first created on December 9, 2011, with the name “Rock the Nation USA,” and it appears to be the Page of a real band posting fliers for the traveling band with information about upcoming concerts. On December 29, 2023, the Page changed its name to “Life Nature” and began posting AI-generated images (among photos taken from other parts of the Internet). Whereas the touring band had ~9,400 followers, a number which had remained consistent from July 2023 to December of that year, following the name change the Page acquired 300,000 followers (December 31 to January 6). The second post after the name change received more than 32,000 likes and 17,000 comments. Figure 6 shows changes in content from band posters to AI-generated content. A booking agent for the band told 404 Media’s Jason Koebler, who found the Page as part of his own investigation, “we found out about the page being hacked towards the end of December. No idea how it happened, unfortunately, as I was the only admin and my personal profile is still intact. Appreciate you trying to support the cause” (Koebler, 2024a). Figure 6 shows the increase in follower growth. Since our analysis, the Page is no longer live on Facebook.

Other examples of Facebook Pages that posted a large number of AI-generated images but were either stolen or repurposed include “Olivia Lily” (formerly a church in Georgia), “Interesting stories” (formerly a windmill seller), and “Amazing Nature” (formerly equine services). One such Page was stolen from a high school band in North Carolina, per NBC reporting (Yang, 2024).

Spam Pages largely leveraged the attention they obtained from viewers to drive them to off-Facebook domains, likely in an effort to garner ad revenue. They would post the AI-generated image often using overlapping captions as described in Finding 1, then leave the URL of the domain they wished users to visit in the first comment. For example, a cluster of Pages that posted images of cabins or tiny homes pointed users to a website that purportedly offered instructions on how to build them. Other clusters used AI-generated or enhanced images of celebrities, babies, animals, and other topics to grab attention and then directed users to heavily ad-laden content​ farm domains—some of which themselves appeared to consist of primarily AI-composed text. An examination of the posting dynamics of several Pages in our data set—those created prior to easily-available generative AI tools—suggested that they both increased their posting volume and also transitioned from posting primarily clickbait links to their domains to posting attention-grabbing AI-generated images (see Figure 7). This is potentially due to the perception that the recommendation engine was likely to privilege one content type over another.

Scam Pages used images of animals, homes, and captivating designs as well, but often implied that they sold the product. Users that appeared to be fake (new accounts, stolen and reversed profile photos) engaged with commenters about the potential to purchase the product or obtain more information.

These spam and scam behaviors were distinct from other high-posting-frequency Pages that appeared to be capitalizing on AI-generated image content for audience growth, including some that ran political ads which were not demonstrably manipulative.

Finding 4: A subset of Facebook users realized that the images were AI-generated and took steps to warn other users.

While most comments on the AI-generated images were unrelated to the artificial nature of the images, some users who encountered the images criticized them for manipulative content or suspicious behavior. For example, take the Page “Love Baby.” From November 2019 through June 2021, the majority of Reviews on the Page described positive experiences visiting a store in Maryland. They talked about the holidays and supporting local businesses. However, recent reviews mentioned the AI-generated content: “mostly Fake/AI” (November 20, 2023) or “all contents are AI GENERATED, so fake” (January 17, 2024). The change in reviews corresponds to a likely change in Page control, as the Page—which included profile pictures of Catonsville Mercantile—transitioned to posting AI-generated content in May 2023.  

In addition to alerting others through reviews, users posted comments on photorealistic images from several Pages in our data set highlighting that the content is AI-generated. These comments occasionally included alert infographics explaining bad behavior on AI Pages writ large, including engaging in nefarious activities like identifying targets for scams.

During the time of our investigation, Meta announced its plan to roll out labeling of AI-generated images that it could detect (Clegg, 2024). A subsequent announcement put the target date for this effort at May 2024 (Bickert, 2024). However, as shown in Figure 9, we did find at least one image labeled as “False information” during our investigation. The label linked to an article from Congo Check highlighting that the image was AI-generated and engaging in comment-bait, or encouraging interaction to artificially increase engagement and reach (Watukalusu, 2024). The article cited the high number of engagements with the post; it was likely fact-checked because it went viral. Dozens of similar images from other Pages are not labeled, showing the difficulty of scaling fact-checking of AI-generated images if treated individually.

We surfaced Facebook Pages producing large volumes of unlabeled AI-generated images by 1) searching for ‘copypasta’ captions (captions that are copy-and-pasted across posts), 2) identifying signs of coordination of those Pages with others, 3) looking at Pages that Facebook Users had called out for posting unlabeled AI-generated images, and 4) surfacing new leads from our own Facebook Feed recommendations. We made determinations about whether Pages were using AI-generated images by finding errors in images and periods of highly similar image creation that bore the aesthetic hallmarks of popular image generators. We describe our specific processes below.

First, we noticed Pages posting unlabeled AI-generated images often used overlapping themes with heavy repetition in captions. Searching phrases from the captions in CrowdTangle surfaced other Pages that had posted the same content or highly similar captions.

Once we surfaced a Page, we had to make a determination about whether content was AI-generated. To make this assessment, we relied on obvious mistakes or unrealistic images as well as on analyzing trends in posts. In Figure 11, we show images posted by the Page “Amazing Statues” with three hands (left), hands melded together (middle), and gloves with more than five fingers (right).

We also analyzed patterns in posts: If a Page used a single AI-generated image it did not qualify, but if it posted a large number of photos (50+) that shared a house style (e.g., of Midjourney) we included it in our analysis. Just as Picasso had his Blue Period, the Pages would often go through periods: a few dozen snow carvings, a few dozen watermelon carvings, a few dozen wood carvings, a few dozen plates of artistically arranged sushi—each with a highly similar style. In Figure 12, we provide a screenshot of one such Page moving through different periods.

Second, once we had identified a Page for inclusion, we investigated adjacent Pages. For example, we looked at Pages sharing each other’s content, co-owners of Groups, and Pages suggested by Facebook when viewing another. Third, we noticed Facebook groups of users interested in finding AI-generated images on the platform. These groups often rely on common open-source intelligence techniques, and they provided several leads for our investigation. Fourth, after several days of engaging with material obtained through these searches, we began to observe unlabeled AI-generated images recommended to us on our own Feeds. Searches that returned a high volume of AI-generated images across many different themes—AI-generated homes, rooms, furniture, clothing, animals, babies, people, food, and artwork—resulted in the subsequent algorithmic suggestion of other AI-generated images across additional random themes.

Limitations

Although manual detection methods were sufficient for identifying Pages described above, our identification method has clear limitations regarding representativeness and exhaustiveness. We discovered Pages that formed clusters, relied on copypasta captions, or were recommended in our Feeds. We only included Pages that posted more than 50 AI-generated images. Since we used manual detection methods for identification, our study over-includes Pages that did not take great precautions to weed out erroneous AI-generated images or intersperse them sufficiently with real images. It under-includes Pages that used AI-generated images sparingly (< 50) or did a better job curating for AI output that appears photorealistic.

Our methods also create a lack of representativeness vis-à-vis language and social media platforms. The images we discovered overwhelmingly included English-language captions. This is likely a product of the researchers’ language and region. Additional research should examine (rather than assume) whether and how these findings generalize to non-English speaking audiences on Facebook. Our methods are sufficient for documenting an understudied type of misuse (and is characteristic of online investigations), but the Pages we studied are not necessarily reflective of how unlabeled AI-generated images are used on Facebook as a whole. Additional academic studies should continue to investigate AI-generated content in different modalities (e.g., text, images, and video) on Facebook as well as on other social media platforms where usage may differ.

Finally, our methods provide limited insight into Page operator motivations. Since we do not operate the Pages ourselves nor did we interview Page operators, we cannot be sure of their aims. In some cases, their aims seemed obvious (e.g., when they posted links to the same off-platform website on many posts). At other times, the posting pattern seemed designed with the proximate goal of audience growth but an unknown ultimate goal. We encourage future research on the motivations of Page operators sharing AI-generated content, user expectations around synthetic media, and longitudinal investigations examining how those evolve.

• Artificial Intelligence
• / Social Media

Cite this Essay

DiResta, R., & Goldstein, J. A. (2024). How spammers and scammers leverage AI-generated images on Facebook for audience growth. Harvard Kennedy School (HKS) Misinformation Review . https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-151

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No funding has been received to conduct this research.

Competing Interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

We relied exclusively on publicly available data and did not seek IRB approval.

This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided that the original author and source are properly credited.

Data Availability

CrowdTangle prohibits users from publishing datasets of posts in full. We, therefore, included screenshots in the paper but cannot provide a full dataset of posts and engagements from the Pages.

Acknowledgements

We thank Abhiram Reddy for excellent research assistance. For feedback on our investigation or an earlier draft of this paper, we thank Elena Cryst, Shelby Grossman, Jeff Hancock, Justin Hileman, Ronald Robertson, David Thiel, and two anonymous reviewers.

Authors contributed equally to this research.