psychology in education

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What Is Educational Psychology?

Studying the Process of How People Learn Most Effectively

• Major Perspectives
• Topics of Study

Frequently Asked Questions

Educational psychology is the study of how people learn and retain information. It mainly focuses on the learning process of early childhood and adolescence; however, learning is a lifelong endeavor. People don't only learn at school; rather, they learn through all of their life experiences, including at home, with friends, at work, through social media, and through culture.

Educational psychologists study the biological, cognitive, emotional, and social factors involved in learning and deepen our understanding of instructional strategies, individual learning styles, and the importance of the environmental context. They may specialize in children with specific learning challenges and develop teaching methods that help students succeed in school.

Educational psychology incorporates several other psychology disciplines , including developmental psychology , behavioral psychology , and cognitive psychology . Over time, five main schools of thought have emerged, including behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism, experientialism, and social contextual learning theories.

This article discusses some of the different perspectives taken within the field of educational psychology, topics that educational psychologists study, and career options in this field.

8 Things to Know About Educational Psychology

Perspectives in educational psychology.

As with other areas of psychology, researchers within educational psychology tend to take on different perspectives when considering a problem. These perspectives focus on specific factors that influence learning, including thoughts, emotions, behaviors, experiences, and more.

Five main schools of thought dominate this field of research, including behavioral, developmental, cognitive, constructivist, and experiential perspectives.

The Behavioral Perspective

This perspective suggests that all behaviors are learned through conditioning, such as positive reinforcement . Psychologists who take this perspective rely firmly on the principles of operant conditioning to explain how learning happens.

For example, teachers might reward learning by giving students tokens that can be exchanged for desirable items such as candy or toys. The behavioral perspective operates on the theory that students will learn when rewarded for desirable behavior and punished for bad behavior.

While such methods can be useful in some cases, the behavioral approach has been criticized for failing to account for internal processes such as attitudes , emotions, and intrinsic motivations for learning.

The Developmental Perspective

The developmental perspective includes studying biological, cognitive, emotional, and social development throughout the lifespan. This perspective focuses on how children acquire new skills and knowledge as they grow and develop.

For developmental psychologists, there is a balance between nature and nurture in the learning process. This means that as the brain develops, the capacity for learning, problem-solving, and memory increases, and at the same time, life experiences with family, playmates, teachers, and mentors facilitate the learning process and acquisition of knowledge.

Jean Piaget's stages of cognitive development are one example of an important developmental theory that examines how children grow intellectually.

By understanding how children think at different stages of development, educational psychologists can better understand what children are capable of at each point of their growth. This can help educators create instructional methods and materials aimed at specific age groups.

The Cognitive Perspective

The cognitive approach has become much more widespread, mainly because it accounts for factors such as thinking, attention, information processing, and memory formation.

Cognitive psychologists value constructs such as individual beliefs, perspectives, emotions , and motivations that contribute to the learning process. This theory supports the idea that a person learns because of their own intrinsic motivation , not because of external rewards as a behaviorist would view it.

Cognitive psychology aims to understand how people think, learn, remember, and process information.

Educational psychologists who take a cognitive perspective are interested in understanding how kids become motivated to learn, how they remember the things that they learn, and how they solve problems, among other topics.

The Constructivist Approach

This perspective focuses on how we actively construct our knowledge of the world. Constructivism accounts for the social and cultural influences that affect how we learn.

Those who take the constructivist approach believe that what a person already knows significantly influences how they learn new information. This means that new knowledge can only be added to and understood in terms of existing knowledge.

This perspective is heavily influenced by the work of psychologist Lev Vygotsky , who proposed ideas such as the zone of proximal development and instructional scaffolding.

Experiential Perspective

This perspective emphasizes that a person's life experiences influence how they understand new information. This method is similar to constructivist and cognitive perspectives in that it considers the learner's experiences, thoughts, and feelings.

This method allows someone to find personal meaning in what they learn instead of feeling that the information doesn't apply to them.

Different perspectives on human learning can be helpful when looking at topics within the field of educational psychology. Each school of thought provides a unique perspective that adds to our overall understanding of the learner and the learning environment.

Topics in Educational Psychology

From the materials teachers use to the individual needs of students, educational psychologists delve deep to more fully understand the learning process. Some of these topics of study in educational psychology include:

• Educational technology : Looking at how different types of technology can help students learn
• Instructional design : Designing effective learning materials
• Special education : Helping students who may need specialized instruction
• Curriculum development : Creating coursework that will maximize learning
• Organizational learning : Studying how people learn in organizational settings, such as workplaces
• Gifted learners : Helping students who are identified as gifted learners

Careers in Educational Psychology

Educational psychologists work with educators, administrators, teachers, and students to analyze how to help people learn best. This often involves identifying students who may need extra help, developing programs for struggling students, and even creating new learning methods.

• School system . Many educational psychologists work directly with schools . Some are teachers or professors, while others help teachers try new learning methods for their students and develop new course curricula.
• Counselor . An educational psychologist may even become a counselor, directly helping students cope with learning barriers.
• Research . Other educational psychologists work in research. For instance, they might work for a government organization such as the U.S. Department of Education, influencing decisions about the best resources and programs for kids to learn in schools nationwide.
• Administration . In addition, an educational psychologist may work in school or university administration. In each of these roles, they can influence educational methods and help students learn in a way that best suits them.

A bachelor's degree and master's degree are usually required for careers in this field; if you want to work at a university or in school administration, you may also need to complete a doctorate.

Educational psychologists often work in schools to help students and teachers improve the learning experience. Other professionals in this field conduct research to investigate the learning process and evaluate programs designed to foster learning.

History of Educational Psychology

Educational psychology is a relatively young subfield that has experienced tremendous growth. Psychology did not emerge as a separate science until the late 1800s, so earlier interest in educational psychology was largely fueled by educational philosophers.

Many regard philosopher Johann Herbart as the father of educational psychology.

• Johann Herbart. He believed that a student's interest in a topic had a tremendous influence on the learning outcome. He believed teachers should consider this when deciding which type of instruction is most appropriate.
• William James. Psychologist and philosopher William James made significant contributions to the field. His seminal 1899 text "Talks to Teachers on Psychology" is considered the first textbook on educational psychology.
• Alfred Binet. In the early 1900s, French psychologist Alfred Binet was developing his famous IQ tests. The tests were originally designed to help the French government identify children who had developmental delays and create special education programs.
• John Dewey. In the United States, John Dewey had a significant influence on education. Dewey's ideas were progressive; he believed schools should focus on students rather than on subjects. He advocated active learning, arguing that hands-on experience was an important part of the process.
• Benjamin Bloom. More recently, educational psychologist Benjamin Bloom developed an important taxonomy designed to categorize and describe different educational objectives. The three top-level domains he described were cognitive, affective, and psychomotor learning objectives.

Other Significant Figures

Throughout history, several additional figures have played an important role in the development of educational psychology. Some of these well-known individuals include:

• John Locke : Locke is an English philosopher who suggested the concept of tabula rasa , or the idea that the mind is essentially a blank slate at birth. This means that knowledge is developed through experience and learning.
• Jean Piaget : A Swiss psychologist best known for his highly influential theory of cognitive development, Piaget's influence on educational psychology is still evident today.
• B.F. Skinner : Skinner was an American psychologist who introduced the concept of operant conditioning, which influences behaviorist perspectives. His research on reinforcement and punishment continues to play an important role in education.

Educational psychology has been influenced by a number of philosophers, psychologists, and educators. Some thinkers who had a significant influence include William James, Alfred Binet, John Dewey, Jean Piaget, Benjamin Bloom, and many more.

Final Thoughts

Educational psychology offers valuable insights into how people learn and plays an important role in informing educational strategies and teaching methods. In addition to exploring the learning process itself, different areas of educational psychology explore the emotional, social, and cognitive factors that can influence how people learn. If you are interested in topics such as special education, curriculum design, and educational technology, then you might want to consider pursuing a career in the field of educational psychology.

A master's in educational psychology can prepare you for a career working in K-12 schools, colleges and universities, government agencies, community organizations, and counseling practices. A career as an educational psychologist involves working with children, families, schools, and other community and government agencies to create programs and resources that enhance learning. 

The primary focus of educational psychology is the study of how people learn. This includes exploring the instructional processes, studying individual differences in how people learn, and developing teaching methods to help people learn more effectively.

Educational psychology is important because it has the potential to help both students and teachers. It provides important information for educators to help them create educational experiences, measure learning, and improve student motivation.

Educational psychology can aid teachers in better understanding the principles of learning in order to design more engaging and effective lesson plans and classroom experiences. It can also foster a better understanding of how learning environments, social factors, and student motivation can influence how students learn.

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educational psychology

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educational psychology , theoretical and research branch of modern psychology , concerned with the learning processes and psychological problems associated with the teaching and training of students. The educational psychologist studies the cognitive development of students and the various factors involved in learning, including aptitude and learning measurement, the creative process, and the motivational forces that influence dynamics between students and teachers. Educational psychology is a partly experimental and partly applied branch of psychology, concerned with the optimization of learning. It differs from school psychology , which is an applied field that deals largely with problems in elementary and secondary school systems.

Educational psychology traces its origins to the experimental and empirical work on association and sensory activity by the English anthropologist Sir Francis Galton , and the American psychologist G. Stanley Hall , who wrote The Contents of Children’s Minds (1883). The major leader in the field of educational psychology, however, was the American educator and psychologist Edward Lee Thorndike , who designed methods to measure and test children’s intelligence and their ability to learn. Thorndike proposed the transfer-of-training theory, which states that “what is learned in one sphere of activity ‘transfers’ to another sphere only when the two spheres share common ‘elements.’ ”

Psychology in Teacher Education

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• First Online: 03 March 2022
• Cite this living reference work entry

• Susanne Narciss 5 &
• Jörg Zumbach 6  

Part of the book series: Springer International Handbooks of Education ((SIHE))

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Teachers should be empowered to act as deliberate professionals, i.e., guiding their actions in an adaptive way to the affordances of educational situations by carefully choosing purposes and goals, by ethical and cultural considerations, as well as by conceptual and technical knowledge. The core goal of teaching psychology in teacher education and vocational programs is to contribute to the education of such deliberate professionals. With theoretical and empirical insights in areas such as human learning, cognition, and motivation; personality and social development; testing and measurement; individual diversity, group differences, and special needs; research on social and cultural factors in instructional contexts; and classroom management, teachers’ professional development, and school effectiveness, educational psychology provides an important basis for the initial education of teachers. Yet, given the restricted time and space for psychology courses in initial teacher education, the curriculum and syllabus design for these programs poses several challenging issues, in particular how to deal with the trade-off between breadth and depth in covering scientific psychological insights and their various potential applications in teaching contexts.

This chapter aims at providing international perspectives and insights into the core goals, as well as evidence-based practices and approaches of teaching psychology in teacher education programs. Starting with an introduction to the rationale for teaching psychology in teacher education programs, the chapter offers a summarizing overview of frameworks of professional teacher standards from all over the world, as well as recommendations for teaching psychology, and especially educational psychology, in teacher education programs. Next, core contents and topics of psychology for (pre-service) teachers are analyzed and presented based on a review of respective textbooks being used in countries around the world. Evidence-based instructional suggestions for implementing teaching, learning, and assessment are also provided. Finally, the relevance of psychology teaching in teacher education programs is emphasized, particularly with regard to transferring psychological knowledge and theories into educational practice and understanding psychological epistemology.

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Psychology in Teacher Education: Efficacy, Professionalization, Management, and Habit

Teachers’ Psychological Characteristics: Do They Matter for Teacher Effectiveness, Teachers’ Well-being, Retention, and Interpersonal Relations? An Integrative Review

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Narciss, S., Zumbach, J. (2022). Psychology in Teacher Education. In: Zumbach, J., Bernstein, D., Narciss, S., Marsico, G. (eds) International Handbook of Psychology Learning and Teaching. Springer International Handbooks of Education. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26248-8_68-1

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What Is Educational Psychology? Theories, Degrees And Careers

Updated: Jan 4, 2024, 1:20am

If you’re interested in how people learn and process information, you might consider a career in educational psychology. This field sits at the intersection of education and psychology, which may be appealing to individuals who do not want to become teachers but aspire to counsel students in educational settings. Career options include school counselor, educational consultant and research-based roles.

In this article, we’ll introduce you to the unique field of educational psychology, including common careers, requirements and earning potential.

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What Does Educational Psychology Study?

Educational psychology professionals focus on the ways people absorb and retain information. These professionals study various theories of educational development, all of which inform teaching styles employed in classrooms across the world.

Educational psychologists work with teachers and school administrators to put in place sound educational practices that benefit most of the student body. These psychologists may also help with more difficult issues, such as learning disabilities or students with low academic performance.

While most of an educational psychologist’s work takes place at the K-12 level, some also work with adults who have learning disabilities.

Educational Psychology Theories

The field of educational psychology is built on several theories regarding how people learn.

John Watson developed the behavioral theory of educational psychology in 1913. This theory states that people are born with minds that are essentially blank, and people’s behavior is a result of their surrounding environment. Behavioral theory places little focus on the idea of innate or inherited knowledge, focusing instead on how individuals gain knowledge through learning and conditioning.

Behavioral theory uses a system of rewards and punishments to change behavior. A good example of this is giving students points for good behavior and rewarding the class once they’ve accumulated enough points.

Developmental

Psychologist Jean Piaget was a popular adherent to the developmental theory of educational psychology. This perspective asserts that people learn skills and concepts along a well-defined continuum involving growth and maturation. It examines how nature and nurture work together to shape a person’s development.

By understanding how children think as they move from one stage of life to the next, educational psychologists can build a better understanding of children’s development.

Cognitivism was developed in response to the theory of behaviorism, asserting that learners process information through the filter of what they already know. This theory emphasizes memory and organization. Classroom examples of cognitivism can include memorization, concept mapping and the use of analogies and metaphors to help with memory.

Constructivist

This perspective focuses on how students are constantly evolving and gaining knowledge during their learning journey. The theory places importance on real-world scenarios and using critical thinking skills to solve problems.

Psychologist Lev Vygotsky was a pioneer of constructivist theory. His research on the zone of proximal development, which separates tasks into three main categories based on skill level, is the main tenet of the cognitive theory of educational psychology.

Experiential

This theory of educational psychology emphasizes how a person’s life experience can influence their understanding and processing of new information. Similar to both the constructivist and cognitive perspectives, this theory considers factors like the learner’s thoughts, feelings and personal experiences more heavily than other theories.

What Degrees Can You Get in Educational Psychology?

If you’re wondering how to become a psychologist in the education space, you can start by pursuing an undergraduate degree in just about any field. Specific bachelor’s degrees in educational psychology are rare, so prospective educational psychologists might instead pursue undergraduate degrees in history, business, general psychology or education.

Do you plan to start with a general psychology bachelor’s degree? Consider our list of the best online psychology degrees .

Master’s in Educational Psychology

At the master’s level, educational psychology learners complete both core curricula and elective courses. Typical master’s in psychology programs require a bachelor’s degree for admission and take two years of study to complete.

Most master’s programs in educational psychology combine core and elective courses, allowing students to choose their desired path within the field of educational psychology. Common coursework for a master’s in educational psychology includes human development, research and analysis, applied learning behaviors, consultation in special education, learning across the lifespan and qualitative approaches to education.

To learn more, check out our list of the best online psychology master’s degrees .

Doctorate in Educational Psychology

For many individuals pursuing careers in psychology , a doctoral degree is necessary. After completing a Ph.D. in educational psychology, students are prepared for careers as college professors, researchers or educational consultants.

Doctoral programs in educational psychology result in Ph.D., Ed.D. or Psy.D. degrees. Ph.D. graduates tend to pursue careers in research, while Ed.D. and Psy.D. graduates typically practice psychology in educational settings. Doctoral programs in psychology typically require either a bachelor’s or a master’s degree for admission and take between three and five years to complete.

Careers in Educational Psychology

Are you wondering what you can do with a degree in educational psychology? Below, we’ve outlined some popular career paths for students who pursue this degree.

We sourced the below salary data from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) and Payscale .

Educational Psychologist

Median Annual Salary: $85,330 Projected Job Growth (2022-2032): +6% Job Description: Educational psychologists study the ways people learn and process information. They often work in school settings but can also perform counseling services or conduct research in their field.

Educational Researcher

Average Annual Salary: Around $67,000 Job Description: Education researchers often work at colleges or universities. These professionals are tasked with analyzing academic departments to ensure they are using the most effective curriculum.

School Psychologist

Median Annual Salary: $81,500 Projected Job Growth (2022-2032): +1% Job Description: School psychologists perform a variety of counseling and psychological services in schools. They develop and implement strategies to help schools address students’ educational or behavioral issues. School psychologists often work with at-risk or learning-disabled students to develop strategies to ensure academic success. We explore this position in detail in our guide on how to become a school psychologist .

College Counselor

Median Annual Salary: $60,140 Projected Job Growth (2022-2032): +5% Job Description: School and college counselors work in educational settings to help students develop their paths to academic success. These counselors assist students with selecting majors or career paths.

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Christin Perry is a freelance writer whose work has appeared in numerous outlets, including WeddingWire, The Knot, Parents and Verywell Family. When she's not working, Christin enjoys reading, gardening and hanging out with her husband and four young kids. She also loves to do small home improvement projects any chance she gets.

What Is Educational Psychology? 6 Examples and Theories

Plato believed that learning is based on the mind’s innate capacity to receive information and judge its intellectual and moral value.

Plato’s foremost pupil, Aristotle, emphasized how learning involves building associations such as succession in time, contiguity in space, and similarities and/or contrasts.

Later thinkers would devote considerable attention to learning and memory processes, various teaching methods, and how learning can be optimized.

Together, these thinkers have formed the growing and diverse body of theory and practice of educational psychology, and this intriguing topic is what we will discuss below.

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This Article Contains:

What is educational psychology and why is it important, a brief history of the field, job description and roles of an educational psychologist, 3 real-life examples, 3 popular theories, educational psychology research topics, educational psychology vs school psychology, a look into vygotsky’s ideas, positivepsychology.com’s relevant resources, a take-home message.

Educational psychology is dedicated to the study and improvement of human learning, across the lifespan, in whatever setting it occurs.

Such settings include not only schools, but also workplaces, organized sports, government agencies, and retirement communities – anywhere humans are engaged in instruction and learning of some type.

Educational psychology is important because of its focus on understanding and improving the crucial human capacity to learn.

In this mission of enhancing learning, educational psychologists seek to assist students and teachers alike.

However, it was not until later in history that educational psychology emerged as a field in its own right, distinct from philosophy.

John Locke (1632–1704), the influential British philosopher and “father of psychology,” famously described the human mind as a tabula rasa  (blank slate) that had no innate or inborn knowledge, but could only learn through the accumulation of experiences.

Johann Herbart (1776–1841) is considered the founder of educational psychology as a distinct field. He emphasized interest in a subject as a crucial component of learning.

He also proposed five formal steps of learning:

• Reviewing what is already known
• Previewing new material to be learned
• Presenting new material
• Relating new material to what is already known
• Showing how new knowledge can be usefully applied

Maria Montessori (1870–1952) was an Italian physician and educator who started by teaching disabled and underprivileged children. She then founded a network of schools that taught children of all backgrounds using a hands-on, multi-sensory, and often student-directed approach to learning.

Nathaniel Gage (1917–2008) was an influential educational psychologist who pioneered research on teaching. He served in the U.S. Army during WWII, where he developed aptitude tests for selecting airplane navigators and radar operators.

Gage went on to develop a research program that did much to advance the scientific study of teaching.

He believed that progress in learning highly depends on effective teaching and that a robust theory of effective teaching has to cover:

• The process of teaching
• Content to be taught
• Student abilities and motivation level
• Classroom management

The above is only a sample of the influential thinkers who have contributed over time to the field of educational psychology.

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Educational psychologists have typically earned either a master’s degree or doctorate in the field.

They work in a variety of teaching, research, and applied settings (e.g., K–12, universities, the military, and educational industries like textbook and test developers).

Those with a doctorate often teach and do research at colleges or universities.

They teach basic courses such as Introduction to Educational Psychology  and more advanced seminars such as Professional Ethics in Educational Psychology , or Research Methods in Educational Psychology .

They conduct research on topics such as the best measure of literacy skills for students in secondary education, the most effective method for teaching early career professionals in engineering, and the relationship between education level and emotional health in retirees.

Educational psychologists also work in various applied roles, such as consulting on curriculum design; evaluating educational programs at schools or training sites; and offering teachers the best instructional methods for a subject area, grade level, or population, be it mainstream students, those with disabilities, or gifted students.

This theory states that besides the traditionally measured verbal and visual–spatial forms of intelligence, there are also forms that include kinesthetic or athletic intelligence, interpersonal or social–emotional intelligence, musical or artistic intelligence, and perhaps other forms we have not yet learned to measure.

Dr. Gardner teaches, conducts research, and publishes. His many books include Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences (1983) and The Disciplined Mind: Beyond Facts and Standardized Tests, the Education That Every Child Deserves  (2000).

Mamie Phipps Clark (1917–1983), shown above, was the first African-American woman to receive a doctorate in psychology from Columbia University. She and her husband Kenneth Clark (1914–2005) were interested in development and self-esteem in African-American children.

Her doctoral work illustrated the dehumanizing effect of segregated schools on both African-American and white children, in the well-known “doll study” (Clark & Clark, 1939). She found that both African-American children and white children imputed more positive characteristics to white dolls than to Black dolls.

This work was used as evidence in Brown v. Board of Education (1954), the unanimous U.S. Supreme Court ruling that decided that schools separated by race were not equal and must be desegregated.

She and her husband founded several institutions dedicated to providing counseling and educational services for underprivileged African-American children, including the Harlem Youth Opportunities Unlimited project.

Irene Marie Montero Gil earned her master’s degree from the Department of Evolutionary and Educational Psychology at the Autonomous University of Madrid, Spain.

Ms. Montero Gil had been balancing subsequent doctoral studies with her role as the youngest member of Spain’s Congress of Deputies, representing Madrid. She later postponed her studies to become Spain’s Minister of Equality, an office that advocates for equal opportunity regardless of age, gender, or disability.

The above examples show just some contributions that educational psychologists can make in research, teaching, legal, and advocacy contexts.

Day in the life of an educational psychologist w/ Dr. Sarah Chestnut

Various theories have been developed to account for how humans learn. Some of the most enduring and representative modern-day theories are discussed below.

1. Behaviorism

Behaviorism equates learning with observable changes in activity (Skinner, 1938). For example, an assembly line worker might have “learned” to assemble a toy from parts, and after 10 practice sessions, the worker can do so without errors within 60 seconds.

In behaviorism, there is a focus on stimuli or prompts to action (your supervisor hands you a box of toy parts), followed by a behavior (you assemble the toy), followed by reinforcement or lack thereof (you receive a raise for the fastest toy assembly).

Behaviorism holds that the behavioral responses that are positively reinforced are more likely to recur in the future.

We should note that behaviorists believe in a pre-set, external reality that is progressively discovered by learning.

Some scholars have also held that from a behaviorist perspective, learners are more reactive to environmental stimuli than active or proactive in the learning process (Ertmer & Newby, 2013).

However, one of the most robust developments in the later behaviorist tradition is that of positive behavioral intervention and supports (PBIS), in which proactive techniques play a prominent role in enhancing learning within schools.

Such proactive behavioral supports include maximizing structure in classrooms, teaching clear behavioral expectations in advance, regularly using prompts with students, and actively supervising students (Simonsen & Myers, 2015).

Over 2,500 schools across the United States now apply the PBIS supportive behavioral framework, with documented improvements in both student behavior (Bradshaw, Waasdorp, & Leaf, 2012) and achievement (Madigan, Cross, Smolkowski, & Stryker, 2016).

2. Cognitivism

Cognitivism was partly inspired by the development of computers and an information-processing model believed to be applicable to human learning (Neisser, 1967).

It also developed partly as a reaction to the perceived limits of the behaviorist model of learning, which was thought not to account for mental processes.

In cognitivism, learning occurs when information is received, arranged, held in memory, and retrieved for use.

Cognitivists are keenly interested in a neuronal or a brain-to-behavior perspective on learning and memory. Their lines of research often include studies involving functional brain imaging (e.g., functional magnetic resonance imaging) to see which brain circuits are activated during specific learning tasks.

Cognitivists are also keenly interested in “neuroplasticity,” or how learning causes new connections to be made between individual brain cells (neurons) and their broader neuronal networks.

From the cognitivist perspective, individuals are viewed as very active in the learning process, including how they organize information to make it personally meaningful and memorable.

Cognitivists, like behaviorists, believe that learning reflects an external reality, rather than shaping or constructing reality.

3. Constructivism

Constructivism holds that from childhood on, humans learn in successive stages (Piaget, 1955).

In these stages, we match our basic concepts, or “schemas,” of reality with experiences in the world and adjust our schemas accordingly.

For example, based on certain experiences as a child, you might form the schematic concept that all objects drop when you let them go. But let’s say you get a helium balloon that rises when you let go of it. You must then adjust your schema to capture this new reality that “most things drop when I let go of them, but at least one thing rises when I let go of it.”

For constructivists, there is always a subjective component to how reality is organized. From this perspective, learning cannot be said to reflect a pre-set external reality. Rather, reality is always an interplay between one’s active construction of the world and the world itself.

For example, Zysberg and Schwabsky (2020) examined the relationships between positive school culture or climate, students’ sense of self-efficacy, and academic achievement in Israeli middle and high school settings.

They found that school climate was positively associated with students’ sense of self-efficacy. Self-efficacy, in turn, was positively associated with academic achievement in math and English.

This study reflects a constructivist approach, emphasizing how students create meaning out of their educational experiences.

Other recent research has focused on behavioral interventions to support online learning, which is increasingly prevalent as an educational option.

For example, Yeomans and Reich (2017) found that sending learners regular prompts to complete online work resulted in a 29% increase in courses completed. They concluded that sending regular reminder prompts is an inexpensive and effective way to enhance online course completion.

This study reflects a proactive behaviorist approach to improving educational outcomes.

Another current research domain in educational psychology involves the use of brain imaging techniques during learning activity.

For example, Takeuchi, Mori, Suzukamo, and Izumi (2019) studied brain activity in teachers and students while teachers provided hints for solving a visual–spatial problem (assembling puzzles).

They found that the prefrontal cortex of the brain, involved in planning and monitoring of complex cognitive activities, was significantly activated in teachers, not when they planned hints to be given, but only when they actually gave the hints.

For the student participants, the prefrontal cortex was significantly activated when they had solved the puzzle with hints provided.

This study emphasizes a cognitivist approach, focused on brain activity during learning.

For cognitivists, understanding how the brain converts instructional inputs into learning can lead to improved teaching strategies and better learning outcomes.

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Educational and school psychologists overlap in their training and functions, to some extent, but also differ in important ways.

Educational psychologists are more involved in teaching and research at the college or university level. They also focus on larger and more diverse groups in their research and consulting activities.

As consultants, educational psychologists work with organizations such as school districts, militaries, or corporations in developing the best methods for instructional needs.

Some school psychologists are involved in teaching, research, and/or consulting with large groups such as a school district. However, most are more focused on working within a particular school and with individual students and their families.

About 80% of school psychologists work in public school settings and do direct interventions with individuals or small groups.

They help with testing and supporting students with special needs, helping teachers develop classroom management strategies, and engaging in individual or group counseling, which can include crisis counseling and emotional–behavioral support.

One idea central to Vygotsky’s learning theory is that of the zone of proximal development (ZPD).

The ZPD is the area between what a learner (student, adult trainee, rehabilitation patient, etc.) can already do on their own and what the learner can readily accomplish with the help of teachers or more advanced peers.

For example, a five-year-old might already know how to perform a given three-step manual task, but can they be taught to complete a four- or five-step task?

The ZPD is a zone of emerging skills, which calls for its own kind of exploration and measurement, in order to better understand a learner’s potential (Moll, 2014).

Vygotsky was also interested in the relationship between thought and language. He theorized that much of thought comprised internalized language or “inner speech.” Like Piaget, whose work he read with interest, Vygotsky came to see language as having social origins, which would then become internalized as inner speech.

In that sense, Vygotsky is often considered a (social) constructivist, where learning depends on social communication and norms. Learning thus reflects our connection to and agreement with others, more than a connection with a purely external or objective reality.

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As mentioned in the discussion of Nathaniel Gage’s theory of effective teaching, student motivation is an important component to assess and encourage.

The Who Am I Self-Reflection can help students and their teachers think about what they are good at, what significant challenges they have been confronted with, and what inspires them. This knowledge can help both teachers and students find ways to enhance motivation in specific cases.

As noted above, the cognitivist approach to educational psychology includes understanding how the brain learns by forming new connections between neurons. The Adopt A Growth Mindset activity is a simple guide to replacing fixed mindset thinking with growth statements. It can inspire adults to learn by referencing their inherent neuroplasticity.

The idea is that with enough effort and repetition, we can form new and durable connections within our brains of a positive and adaptive nature.

If you’re looking for more science-based ways to help others enhance their wellbeing, this signature collection contains 17 validated positive psychology tools for practitioners. Use them to help others flourish and thrive.

The field of educational psychology has ancient roots and remains vibrant today.

Today, there are many programs across the world providing quality training in educational psychology at the master’s, doctoral, and postdoctoral levels.

According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, career opportunities in psychology will grow at a healthy rate of about 14% over this decade, and educational psychology is expected to keep pace.

In addition, job satisfaction in educational psychology and related fields such as school psychology has traditionally been high, including as it concerns social impact, independence, and compensation (Worrell, Skaggs, & Brown, 2006).

Those with a doctorate in educational psychology have potential for a broad impact on learners of any and every type. They often teach at the college or university level, conduct research and publish on various topics in the field, or consult with various organizations about the best teaching and learning methods.

Researchers in educational psychology have made important contributions to contemporary education and culture, from learning paradigms (behaviorism, cognitivism, constructionism) and the theory of multiple intelligences, to proactive school-wide positive behavioral supports.

We hope you have learned more about the rich field of educational psychology from this brief article and will find the resources it contains useful. Don’t forget to download our free Positive Psychology Exercises .

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• Bradshaw, C. P., Waasdorp, T. E., & Leaf, P. J. (2012). Effects of school-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports on child behavior problems. Pediatrics , 130 (5), e1136–e1145.
• Clark, K., & Clark, M. (1939). The development of consciousness of self and the emergence of racial identification in Negro preschool children. Journal of Social Psychology ,  10 (4), 591–599.
• Ertmer, P. A., & Newby, T. J. (2013). Behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism: Comparing critical features from an instructional design perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly , 26 (2), 43–71.
• Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences . Basic Books.
• Gardner, H. (2000). The disciplined mind: Beyond facts and standardized tests, the education that every child deserves . Penguin Books.
• Grinder, R. E. (1989). Educational psychology: The master science. In M. C. Wittrock & F. Farley (Eds.), The future of educational psychology (pp. 3–18). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
• Madigan, K., Cross, R. W., Smolkowski, K., & Stryker, L. A. (2016). Association between schoolwide positive behavioural interventions and supports and academic achievement: A 9-year evaluation. Educational Research and Evaluation , 22 (7–8), 402–421.
• Moll, L. C. (2014). L. S. Vygotsky and education . Routledge.
• Neisser, U. (1967). Cognitive psychology . Appleton-Century-Crofts.
• Piaget, J. (1955). The child’s construction of reality . Routledge & Kegan Paul.
• Simonsen, B., & Myers, D. (2015). Classwide positive behavior interventions and supports: A guide to proactive classroom management . Guilford Publications.
• Skinner, B. F. (1938). The behavior of organisms: An experimental analysis . B. F. Skinner Foundation.
• Takeuchi, N., Mori, T., Suzukamo, Y., & Izumi, S. I. (2019). Activity of prefrontal cortex in teachers and students during teaching of an insight problem. Mind, Brain, and Education , 13 , 167–175.
• Worrell, T. G., Skaggs, G. E., & Brown, M. B. (2006). School psychologists’ job satisfaction: A 22-year perspective in the USA. School Psychology International , 27 (2), 131–145.
• Yeomans, M., & Reich, J. (2017). Planning prompts increase and forecast course completion in massive open online courses. Conference: The Seventh International Learning Analytics & Knowledge Conference , pp. 464–473.
• Zysberg, L., & Schwabsky, N. (2020). School climate, academic self-efficacy and student achievement . Educational Psychology. Taylor & Francis Online.

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What Is Educational Psychology?

Learning is a highly individualized process. What proves effective for one person might not work for another. Most of us have experienced this at one point — struggling with concepts presented through one medium but understanding them when taught in a different way. To improve the process of education, psychology professionals are working to understand exactly how people learn and retain information.

“Educational psychology is the field that explores our psychological processes, theories, and principles that influence learning and development within an educational environment,” says Kristina Noriega , EdD, MSIDT, MSCP, psychology faculty member at Purdue Global. “It examines how students of all ages — from early childhood to adulthood — acquire knowledge, develop skills, and adapt to different learning environments.”

In this article, Noriega shares insights and potential career paths within this rewarding and challenging field.

Understanding Educational Psychology

Learning is a unique journey for every individual. Educational psychology delves into the cognitive, behavioral, and developmental aspects of this journey. The goal, according to the American Psychological Association , is to better understand how students learn and develop in an educational setting.

Those who study educational psychology learn topics such as student motivation, student assessment, instructional techniques, and classroom management.

“Once they become working educational psychology professionals, they can then apply all of this knowledge into real-world scenarios and situations in support of the field of learning,” Noriega says.

What Can You Do With a Master’s in Educational Psychology?

A master’s degree in educational psychology can open doors to a range of roles within the educational sector. Potential career paths include:

1. Educational Researcher

An educational researcher focuses on the intricacies of the learning process to understand and improve educational practices and outcomes. They employ various methodologies, from qualitative interviews to quantitative data analysis, to study topics such as teaching methods, learning styles, curriculum effectiveness, and educational policies.

“As an educational researcher, you can study educational interventions, learning processes, or even policy,” Noriega explains. “This research often informs educators, policymakers, and institutions, providing evidence-based recommendations to enhance the quality of education and promote effective learning environments.”

Educational researchers work in many settings, from academia and government agencies to private and nonprofit research organizations. You can even apply educational psychology to understand behavior, preferences, and pain points as you design and develop products and learning material.

“I’ve been a user experience researcher,” she says. “This role helps ensure that services and products are designed with the needs and preferences of the users or learners in mind.”

2. Educational Program Director

An educational program director leads and enhances the quality of education within schools. Their responsibilities encompass a broad range of tasks including curriculum planning, textbook selection, and teacher training.

“Additionally, they are involved in devising and implementing programs for extracurricular activities, ensuring a holistic educational experience for students,” Noriega says. Educational program directors work in school districts, higher education institutions, government educational departments, private educational consultancies, and nonprofit organizations focused on education.

3. Education Administrator, Kindergarten Through Secondary

An education administrator, kindergarten through secondary, ensures that schools operate efficiently and provide high-quality educational experiences to students. According to O*NET OnLine , they are responsible for planning, directing, and coordinating the academic, administrative, and auxiliary activities of kindergarten, elementary, or secondary schools.

Education administrators play an important role in the educational landscape. These roles typically work within public and private school systems, charter schools, school district offices, and sometimes at state or federal educational departments. Licensing and certification requirements may apply.

4. Instructional Coordinator

An instructional coordinator, often referred to as a curriculum specialist, plays a crucial role in shaping the educational content delivered to students. According to O*NET OnLine , these professionals oversee school curriculum and teaching standards, taking charge of developing and implementing instructional materials, and subsequently assessing their effectiveness.

They typically find employment in public and private K-12 schools, colleges and universities, and school district offices. They might also work within educational consultancies and state or federal educational agencies. Their expertise ensures that educational content aligns with set standards and effectively meets the learning needs of students.

Earn a Master of Science in Educational Psychology With Purdue Global

The field of educational psychology plays a key part in shaping the educational process. For individuals considering advanced roles in educational administration, program evaluation, or operations research, a master's degree in this discipline can offer a solid foundation for your career.

Employers may prefer candidates with a master’s degree because it provides a deeper understanding of psychology principles and research methods. “Earning a master’s degree can give candidates extra leverage in the job market,” Noriega says.

Learn more about Purdue Global's  online master's in educational psychology and request more information today.

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Psychology in Education: General Track MA

Master of arts in psychology in education.

For students interested in the field of Clinical Psychology

Our Master of Arts degree is formally titled “Psychology in Education” for historical reasons, but is widely known as the premier MA program for students interested in the field of Clinical Psychology. The program provides foundational knowledge of psychopathology, treatment, theory, and research methods, with a range of courses in areas such as trauma, forensics, women's mental health, global mental health, and mindfulness practice. It is ideally suited for applicants who are looking to strengthen their academic background prior to applying to doctoral programs such as the Psy.D. or Ph.D. in Clinical or Counseling Psychology.

Please note: This program is not intended to prepare students for the independent practice of professional psychology and will not lead to licensure in New York State. Applicants interested in a license-eligible Master's level education are encouraged to consider the department's M.Ed. program in Mental Health Counseling.

The Department of Counseling and Clinical Psychology at Teachers College is a world-renowned training ground for researchers and clinicians, particularly known for innovation in research, pedagogy and clinical practice. Students within the M.A. program experience the demands of a graduate-level education in Clinical Psychology while also exploring the multiple avenues available in the ever-growing mental health field beyond. Our mission is to provide students with a platform to clarify their interests and then direct themselves toward their next professional goals. The M.A. program exposes students to diverse perspectives and populations, and supports them with intensive academic advisement, so that they may discover the best fit for their unique abilities as they prepare for the next major step in their career development.

During their tenure, students are closely guided by M.A. program advisors, who are current Ph.D. students in Clinical Psychology. Advisors help students to clarify their academic goals, to gauge progress, and assist with professional development. Through the innovative M.A. program curriculum, which includes a combination of didactic instruction and experiential learning, students develop the critical thinking skills needed to interpret scientific knowledge, review traditional and contemporary treatment models, and engage in innovative research at research centers throughout New York City. By the end, students are abundantly prepared for the transition to doctoral level education in their chosen area of expertise.

A master's degree in psychology is a critical step toward the attainment of a doctoral degree. Our M.A. program is intended to focus a student's passion for clinical psychology in a direction that will help to realize their goal of attaining a doctoral degree. Our 10 concentration areas are designed to provide students with intensive didactics, and the Integrative Project allows students to pursue competence in a chosen topic area in earnest.

Students have the option to concentrate their studies in any of ten areas of study. Whereas most students choose one concentration, some organize their coursework around more than one.

• Child & Family (Bodnar)
• Clinical Psychology & Technology (Nitzburg)
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• Global Mental Health & Trauma (Verdeli & Bonnano)
• Neuropsychology (Waxman)
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• Sexuality, Women & Gender (Athan)
• Spirituality & Mind/Body Practices (Miller)

The M.A. program student body draws students from all over the world with the current class comprising students from over 30 countries and almost every state in the Union. Students are typically serious about pursuing doctoral degrees, and are excited by the opportunity to prove themselves in a rigorous learning environment.

The program has many dimensions; and is appropriate for students who have obtained undergraduate degrees in Psychology as well as for those with a limited exposure to the field. Some students use the program to enhance their current work (e.g., neuroscience, global mental health), while others use it to distill their interests within psychology (e.g., forensic psychology, computational methods). The M.A. program celebrates that our students are not of one voice. This diversity of perspectives is considered necessary to solve the very real-world problems they will encounter upon graduation. Each student has a unique contribution to make.

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The program for the Master of Arts (M.A.) degree in Psychology in Education requires 36 points of coursework and the Integrative Project. The program has a simple structure, in which 18 credits (6 classes) must be completed within the Psychology in Education program (CCPX). An additional 9 credits (3 classes) of Breadth Requirement must be taken at Teachers College in other Programs or Departments (e.g,, Statistics in HUDM). Nine additional credits of Electives (3 classes) may be taken anywhere at Columbia University, including the Psychology in Education Program. Students typically take 3 classes per semester, over a period of 4 semesters. Although the degree can be completed in less time (e.g., 2 semesters, and 2 summer periods) it is advisable for students to allow themselves time to focus on independent research. Students may take up to five years to finish the degree program.

Transfer credits from courses taken outside of Teachers College are not accepted toward any M.A. degree program at Teachers College. Some CCPX classes may be restricted to doctoral students only. Please refer to the course schedule to determine which courses are open to M.A. students.

All students matriculating in the M.A. degree program are given a copy of the Student Handbook for the specific academic year in which they matriculate. The Handbook outlines these requirements in detail.

The Curriculum:

18 credits in Psychology in Education (within CCPX) 9 credits of Breadth (outside CCPX)

9 credits of Electives (Any graduate program at Columbia University)

 Integrative Project (Independent research project)

The Integrative Project

The Integrative Project is intended to be the culmination of a student's development in the Master's degree program and represents a substantial contribution to the field. Students are encouraged to meet with the Program Director as early as possible in the development of their project to review their proposal and to identify an appropriate Sponsor, who will be the person primarily responsible for evaluation of the finished work. For more information on the Integrative Project, please see the Student Handbook.

*The Program Director or the M.A. Program Assistants are available for consultation about course selection and about the Integrative Project.

*Please note: Clinical required and elective ‘topics’ courses (CCPX 4199) change each year. Information about these courses can be found in the M.A. Handbook but not in the Teachers College Catalog.

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Handbook of Educational Psychology

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The fourth edition of the Handbook of Educational Psychology , sponsored by Division 15 of the American Psychological Association, addresses new developments in educational psychology theory and research methods while honoring the legacy of the field’s past. Comprising 31 chapters written by a diverse group of recognized Educational Psychologist and/or Learning and Motivational Scientist (EDP/LMS) scholars, this volume provides integrative reviews and critical syntheses of inquiry across a variety of foundational and new areas. Key constructs like motivation, development, beliefs, literacy, and emotions are given substantive updates, while entire new chapters touch on trends that have materialized since the publication of the third edition, such as inquiry world views, Critical Race Theory, cognitive neuroscience, and emerging technologies in education. Throughout this new edition, chapter authors coalesce on issues of social justice, situated approaches to inquiry, and progressive inquiry methods. The Handbook of Educational Psychology , Fourth Edition , will be an important reference volume for current and future EDP/LMS scholars, broadly conceived, as well as for teacher educators, practicing teachers, policy makers, and the academic libraries serving these audiences. It is also appropriate for graduate-level courses in educational psychology, learning and motivational sciences, and research methods in education and psychology.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Part section i | 12  pages, the handbook of educational psychology, fourth edition, chapter 21 | 10  pages, an introduction to the handbook of educational psychology, fourth edition, part section ii | 176  pages, philosophical, theoretical, and methodological approaches to inquiry, chapter 142 | 33  pages, hast thee any philosophy, chapter 3 | 23  pages, inquiry worldviews, approaches to research, and mixed methods in educational psychology, chapter 4 | 21  pages, examining race in educational psychology, chapter 5 | 27  pages, cross-cultural research on learning and teaching, chapter 6 | 20  pages, taking a situative approach to research in educational psychology, chapter 7 | 23  pages, contributions of complex systems approaches, perspectives, models, and methods in educational psychology, chapter 8 | 27  pages, educational psychology and educational policy, part section iii | 216  pages, inquires in foundational areas, chapter 1909 | 28  pages, chapter 10 | 26  pages, emotions and emotion regulation, chapter 11 | 24  pages, the role of passion in education, chapter 12 | 22  pages, identity and learning, chapter 13 | 23  pages, belief change, chapter 14 | 21  pages, self-regulation, chapter 15 | 24  pages, exceptionalities, chapter 16 | 24  pages, the roles of peers in students' cognitive and academic development, chapter 17 | 22  pages, cognitive neuroscience and education, part section iv | 172  pages, inquiries in teaching and learning, chapter 40618 | 26  pages, the relevance of educational psychology research in teacher education, chapter 19 | 25  pages, asset-based pedagogy, chapter 20 | 22  pages, educating with collective intersectional care, chapter 21 | 29  pages, mathematics teaching and learning, chapter 22 | 22  pages, social studies education, chapter 23 | 22  pages, science learning and teaching, chapter 24 | 24  pages, part section v | 142  pages, inquiries in emerging technologies, chapter 57825 | 24  pages, new literacies, chapter 26 | 27  pages, intelligent tutoring systems, chapter 27 | 24  pages, technology-rich learning environments, chapter 28 | 20  pages, cyberbullying, chapter 29 | 22  pages, gaming in educational contexts, chapter 30 | 23  pages, virtual reality and educational psychology, part section vi | 11  pages, conclusions, chapter 72031 | 9  pages, the prejudiced past and progressive future of educational psychology.

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Education can shape an individual's life, both in the classroom and outside of it. A quality education can lay the groundwork for a successful career , but that's far from its only purpose. Education—both formal and informal—imparts knowledge, critical thinking skills, and, in many cases, an improved ability to approach unfamiliar situations and subjects with an open mind.

Some of the pressures of modern education, by contrast, are thought to contribute to the increased incidence of mental health challenges among today’s children and young adults. Examining current approaches to education—and identifying the ways in which they may be counterproductive—can help parents, teachers, and other stakeholders better support students’ well-being.

To learn more about helping kids succeed in school, see Academic Problems and Skills .

• The Purpose of Education
• What Makes Education Effective?
• How Can We Improve Education?

Scholars and philosophers have debated the purpose of education throughout history. Some have argued that education was necessary for an engaged citizenry; some felt its purpose was to promote obedience and indoctrinate youth to dominant cultural ideas; still others believed that the pursuit of knowledge was in itself a virtuous or even spiritual goal. Today, conversations around the purpose of education tend to center around child development and the economy—that is, how education can help children grow into healthy, competent adults who are able to support themselves financially and contribute to society. Some experts warn, however, that excessive focus on the economic and pragmatic benefits of education deprives the process of joy. Humans—especially children—are natural learners, they argue, and learning may be most valuable when it’s pursued for its own sake.

Education, broadly defined, is valuable for teaching children the social, emotional, and cognitive skills needed to function in society. Formal education is thought to facilitate social learning , build executive functioning skills, and allow children to explore subjects they may not naturally be exposed to. Informal education typically allows them to cultivate their own interests and learn self-direction , itself an important life skill.

Ideally, in the modern world, education will teach both the technical skills needed for future success and cultivate the critical thinking abilities that allow humans to creatively approach problems, engage new perspectives, and innovate in an ever-changing world. Whether the current system of formal education does that effectively, however, is a source of great debate among the public and policymakers alike.

Most policymakers and educational psychologists agree that some kind of formal education is necessary to function in the modern world. But many experts argue its hyperfocus on grades, testing, and following a set curriculum, rather than children’s interests, can actually be counterproductive and interfere with the natural learning process that more informal education approaches often provide. Excessively rigid schooling is also thought to contribute to heightened anxiety among children, especially those who fall behind or are otherwise non-normative.

Homeschooling —in which a child is not enrolled in a formal school, but instead is educated by their parents or with other homeschoolers—has both strengths and drawbacks. Some common benefits reported by families include increased flexibility in what is studied, the ability to pace the curriculum to a child’s needs, and a supportive learning environment. Potential cons include reduced opportunities for socialization, limited diversity in the opinions and subjects that a child may be exposed to, and an emotional and intellectual burden placed on parents, who may struggle to keep their child engaged or update their own knowledge to ensure they’re imparting useful, up-to-date information.

Grades can be valuable tools in determining which children grasp the material and which are struggling. But despite widespread myths that good grades are necessary to succeed in life , high school and college grades do not necessarily correlate with long-term success. And hyperfocus on grades can have profoundly negative effects, as students who pursue perfect grades at all costs often struggle with anxiety , depression , or feelings of burnout .

Highly-ranked colleges are widely assumed to confer lifelong benefits to attendees, including higher incomes and more prestigious, satisfying careers. But this isn’t necessarily true. Indeed, evidence suggests that, when controlling for prior socioeconomic status and academic achievement, attending an elite college makes little difference in someone’s later income. Other research suggests that the type of college someone attends has no effect on their later life satisfaction; instead, having supportive professors or participating in meaningful activities during college best predicts someone’s future well-being.

Teachers, parents, and society at large have debated at length the criteria that denote a "good" education. In recent years, many educators have attempted to develop their curricula based on research and data, integrating the findings of developmental psychology and behavioral science into their lesson plans and teaching strategies. Recent debates have centered on how much information should be tailored to individual students vs. the class at large, and, increasingly, whether and how to integrate technology into classrooms. Students’ age, culture, individual strengths and weaknesses, and personal background—as well as any learning disabilities they may have—all play a role in the effectiveness of particular teachers and teaching methods.

The idea that education should be tailored to children’s different “learning styles”—typically categorized as visual, auditory, and kinesthetic—has been around for decades. But research has not found that creating targeted lessons based on children’s learning styles helps them learn more effectively ; some has even suggested that characterizing children as having one particular learning style could be unfairly limiting, and may stop them from tackling tasks outside of their comfort zone.

Children are by nature highly active, and an inability to move throughout the day often triggers inattention and poor mood—neither of which are conducive to learning. And moving during learning, not just before or after it, has been shown to be similarly beneficial; children who are allowed to move in class learn better , research shows, paying more attention and achieving higher outcomes.

Whether homework is beneficial is the subject of debate. Proponents argue that homework reinforces lessons and fosters time management and organizational skills. Opponents argue that excessive homework has been correlated with lower scores in critical subjects, like math and science, as well as worsened physical and mental health. Most experts argue that if homework is assigned, it should serve a specific purpose —rather than just being busywork—and should be tailored to a child’s age and needs. 

In general, evidence suggests that online-only courses are less effective than courses where students are able to meet in person. However, when in-person learning is not possible—such as during the COVID-19 pandemic—well-designed  distance learning  programs can bridge the gap. Research indicates that online programs that mix passive instruction with active practice, and that allow students to progress at their own pace, tend to be most effective.

Depression, anxiety, and other mental health disorders appear to be significantly more common in today's college students than they once were. Nearly 1 in 5 university students suffer from anxiety or depression, research suggests, and many colleges—particularly larger ones—will face at least one student suicide per year. The reasons for this are complex, experts warn, but may be due to factors including the increased prevalence of social media , the financial and academic stress of college, reduced economic opportunity upon graduation, and decreased resilience among today's youth as a result of parental over-involvement.

The world is changing rapidly, and so are children’s educational needs. While many people agree that education should prepare children for a competitive global economy, there has also been a push to recognize that children's well-being should be taken into consideration when planning curricula and structuring the school day.

To this end, parents and educators are confronting pedagogical questions such as: What is the optimal time to start school to make sure students can learn effectively—and get enough rest? How many and what kind of breaks do students need during the day? What are the best ways for students to learn, and do they differ depending on the subject being taught—or the students themselves?

In some of these areas, big changes are already taking place. Some states, for instance, are considering or have already passed laws that would delay school start times, making them more conducive to children's sleeping schedules. Other states have passed laws requiring recess, ensuring that children have access to physical activity throughout the day. These reforms, along with others, aim to protect children's physical and mental health—in addition to making them better able to focus, learn, and grow.

Many experts now believe that starting school later—typically after 8:30 A.M.—is better for children than starting earlier. This is particularly true for middle and high school children, who naturally sleep later than adults and may struggle to function if made to wake too early. Many school districts have implemented later school start times to account for this biological reality.

First and foremost, school recess provides the physical activity that is critical to a child’s physical and mental health. But recess is also an opportunity for children to socialize without (excessive) adult interference, which allows them to learn cooperation and conflict resolution skills.

Kindergarten and preschool programs are increasingly focusing on teaching children academic skills like math and reading. But evidence suggests that because children are not yet cognitively or emotionally equipped to handle most academic material, such early academic training can produce lasting harm . Some research has found that children in such programs do worse over the long term than children who spent preschool and kindergarten playing and socializing.

Children and young adults today are significantly more likely to experience mental health problems—especially anxiety and depression—than in decades past, and many will require mental health interventions at school. Evidence suggests that schools of any level can best support and help treat students with mental health disorders by proactively identifying students who need help, fostering a school culture that makes mental well-being a priority, and working to decrease stigma surrounding mental health care, both among students and their families. For students without diagnosable mental illnesses, schools can still be supportive by ensuring workloads are reasonable; providing opportunities for movement, creativity , and social connection; and reminding children, teenagers , and young adults that it's OK to ask for help.

A new practical method for promoting fair-mindedness, reducing bias and engaging in meaningful conversations that promote understanding and progress.

We must be cautious of people who let their ideology and self-interest frame their thinking and use social constructs to discourage actual critical thinking.

Domain-general cognitive capabilities are linked with children's math performance, but does training these skills in isolation lead to meaningful improvements in math learning?

Personal Perspective: The widening gap between female and male achievement risks a regressive male response if unaddressed.

Archetypes can uproot our assumptions and open possibilities. They're fundamental to the stories we tell and live.

Colleges, businesses, and other organizations have formalized mentoring programs. Research tells us the key ingredients to make sure those connections flourish.

Recent research does not replicate earlier studies that show students backslide in reading and math over summer vacation.

AI has been tested as a museum curator. The experiment is a case study of how psychology functions in complex creative tasks.

Authentic Exploratory Research helps students apply psychology.

Celebrating STEM leaders, like we do Olympic athletes, can inspire underrepresented youth to pursue science and healthcare.

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• Course Code
• Full-time: P-C8X3
• Part-time: P-C8X3 (2 years)/TEQA-C8X4 (3 years)
• Course Type
• Postgraduate Taught
• Qualification
• Full-time: 1 year
• Part-time: 2 or 3 years
• Department of Study
• Education Studies
• Location of Study
• University of Warwick

Do you work in the education sector and hope to increase your knowledge of psychology to support children with Special Educational Needs and Disabilities to reach their potential? Are you interested in how applied psychological research translates into classroom practice? Perhaps your background is in social policy or education and you want to specialise in educational psychology issues? Whatever your goals are, enhance your knowledge and practical skills with this course.

Course Overview

Psychology has an important role to play in understanding how children and young people think, learn, feel and behave in various contexts, including family, school and the community. Through this course, we explore how psychology and education come together to improve children’s life chances. This course is ideal if your interest lies at the interface of applied psychological research and real-world applications in educational contexts. This course relies on evidence based practice both from the point of view of building the evidence base through research, but also from an applied perspective e.g, learning and practising behavioural skills that are core components of evidence-based approaches. This course is designed to provide you with the latest evidence from applied research.

Core Modules

• Research Methods in Psychology and Education
• Special Educational Needs and Evidence-Based Practices
• Early Intervention
• Dissertation MA Psychology and Education

Optional Modules

This programme has a number of optional modules to choose from. Our optional module lists are subject to change each year to keep the student learning experience current and up-to-date. You can find the most up to date list here.

Teaching and Assessment

Depending on which term modules run, you'll attend one or two 3-hour seminars each week during the Autumn and Spring Terms of modules plus research methods training lectures and seminars throughout all three terms. If you are a part-time student the number of modules you take each term will depend on the length of your course. You will have one optional module to select in total. Depending on the module you select, sessions consist of presentations, group discussions, case studies and self-study. Seminar group numbers vary depending on the modules that are selected. Assessment types vary depending on modules selected but may be a mixture of assignments and oral presentations. You’ll also complete a dissertation based on an individual research project, with support from a member of academic staff.

Skills from this degree

• Capacity for advancing evidence-based arguments and drawing conclusions that are supported by in depth data at a dissertation level
• Confidence in engaging in academic debates on the intersections between Psychology and Education
• Intellectual thoroughness required to review diverse bodies of research and analyse their findings
• Understand current theoretical and policy issues with regard to special educational needs and disability
• Undertake a research project that involves theoretical and methodological understandings. Create a well-defined topic with a view to advancing evidence-based arguments. Drawing implications for policy and practice.
• Reflect on your own potential as a learner

Entry Requirements

Minimum requirements 2:ii undergraduate degree (or equivalent) in a related subject

English language requirements Band B (IELTS score to 7 overall, two at 6.0/6.5 & rest 7.0+)

International Students We welcome applications from students with other internationally recognised qualifications. For more information please visit the international entry requirements page .

Fees, Funding and Scholarships

For up-to-date information concerning fees, funding and scholarships for Home, EU and Overseas students please visit Warwick's Fees and Funding webpage . Departmental Funding may also be available, check the scholarships that are available at here.

Additional Course Costs

You may wish to undertake some research with children or young people that may require a Disclosure and Barring Service (DBS) check or a Certificate of Good Conduct for students from outside of the UK. A DBS check costs around £70 and a Certificate of Good Conduct can vary in price.

Graduates from these courses have gone on to work for employers including: Academy 360; Ark Schools; British Council; Department of Education; E-Act; Oxfordshire County Council; PricewaterhouseCoopers and Royal Academy of Engineering. They have pursued roles such as: actors, entertainers and presenters; business, research and administrative professionals; chief executives and senior officials; education advisers and school inspectors; further education teaching professionals and vocational and industrial trainers and instructors.

Our department has a dedicated professionally qualified Senior Careers Consultant offering impartial advice and guidance together with workshops and events throughout the year. Previous examples of workshops and events include:

• Careers in Education
• Careers with Children and Young People
• Warwick careers fairs throughout the year

We host bespoke PG visits, where you can talk directly with a member of Education Studies staff and explore our campus through a personalised tour. To find out more about all of these opportunities, visit our Postgraduate Visits page. If you are not in the UK then you are welcome to arrange a phone conversation with the course leader for the programme you are applying for. For this, and to ask any questions you have about your application or studying Education at Warwick, please email [email protected]

Related Taught Courses

Childhood in Society(MA)

Educational Leadership and Management (MA)

Educational Innovation (MA)

Education (MA)

Global Education and International Development (MA)

Leading Educational Change and Improvement (PGA)

Branches of Psychology

Peer Counselor

Psychology Undergraduate, Harvard University

Fujia Sun is a first-year undergraduate studying psychology and economics at Harvard College. She has worked as a clinical psychology intern and peer counselor.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

Psychology is a science in which behavioral and other evidence is used to understand the mind and behavior of humans (Eysenck, 2004).

It encompasses various aspects of human behavior, such as thought, emotions, cognition, personality, social behavior, and brain function.

Throughout the years, people have used multiple research methods to understand this complicated subject, and have divided this subject into various branches to better study human behavior. So far, there can be as many as 22 branches of psychology.

To better categorize the branches of psychology, this article will be dividing the branches into basic and applied psychology (Guilford & Anastasi, 1950).

• Basic psychology, or theoretical psychology, aims to extend and improve human knowledge. Basic psychology aims to discover or establish instances of universal similarity and trace their origin or development to explain their causal connections.
• Applied psychology, or practical psychology, aims to extend and improve the condition and phases of human life and conduct. Its goal is to analyze responses and situations and create interventions to address real-life concerns and challenges individuals face (Thomas, 2022).

However, it is crucial to remember that psychology classification could vary, and many psychologists work in both basic and applied psychology sections throughout their careers.

Moreover, basic and applied fields of psychology complement one another, and together help form a deeper understanding of human mind and behavior.

Basic Psychology

Basic psychology seeks to understand the fundamental principles of behavior and mind, focusing on generating knowledge. It seeks to answer the question “Why does this occur?”.

1. Biological psychology

The origin of biological psychology is greatly influenced by “Origin of Species” written by Charles Darwin, whose views on evolution greatly impacted the psychological world.

Psychologists started analyzing the role of heredity in influencing human behavior. Biological psychology focuses on studying physiological processes within the human body, often including the study of neurotransmitters (chemical messengers that transmit messages from one neuron to the next) and hormones.

One approach used in biological psychology is studying how different sets of genes influence behavior, personality, and intelligence.

Twin studies – the study of monozygotic twins with the exact set of genes and the study of dizygotic twins who share half of each other’s genomes – are often used for this purpose.

The biological branch of psychology is especially important because processes studied by it are virtually involved in almost all human behavior (Eysenck, 2004).

2. Abnormal psychology

Abnormal psychology is also known as psychopathology . It focuses on understanding the causes, treatment, and nature of mental disorders, and helps produce effective therapy for patients who have mental disorders, such as Major Depressive Disorder, Autism, Schizophrenia, and much more (Hooley et al., 2019).

This is considered basic psychology because understanding the etiology of a mental health condition can help applied psychologists develop effective interventions.

In the past, the treatment of people who deviated from the norm involved brutal treatments such as trephination and exorcism that aimed to “drive away” the evil spirits that people claimed to be possessing the ill.

Patients were kept in the bedlams inside asylums, and most people with mental illness died tragically. The development of psychoanalysis , CBT , and mindfulness-based therapies , has led to improvements in therapy and reduced the pain and suffering of patients (Eysenck, 2004).

3. Cognitive Psychology

The study of cognitive psychology focuses on the process of thinking. It includes areas such as memory, problem-solving, learning, attention, and language.

This approach to psychology is important because the human brain is tied to multiple other branches of psychology, such as social, abnormal, and developmental psychology. 

Theoretical topics of cognitive psychology would include the study of memory, perception, attention, etc.

Moreover, the insights provided by cognitive psychologists have led to profound impacts on the development of practical applications across diverse fields, whereby professionals from unrelated domains effectively utilized this knowledge to create things such as computer and gaming systems that are easy for humans to use.

The study of cognitive psychology also benefited the well-being of many patients who experienced brain damage , and they were able to get surgery to regain back some of their lost cognitive skills (Eysenck, 2004).

4. Developmental Psychology

Developmental psychology studies how individuals change over time, especially during the childhood period.

Psychologists spend decades studying people’s childhood development of thinking processes and behavioral changes, looking at how childhood experiences may impact adult behavior.

It includes topics such as the physical, cognitive, emotional, and social changes that occur from infancy to elderly life.

This branch is essential to helping children develop good social skills and address developmental challenges, as well as understanding factors influencing adult behaviors (Eysenck, 2004).

5. Behavioral Psychology

Behaviorism , also known as behavioral learning theory, is a theoretical perspective in psychology that emphasizes the role of learning and observable behaviors in understanding human and animal actions.

Behaviorism is a theory of learning that states all behaviors are learned through conditioned interaction with the environment. Thus, behavior is simply a response to environmental stimuli.

The behaviorist theory is only concerned with observable stimulus-response behaviors, as they can be studied in a systematic and observable manner.

Some of the key figures of the behaviorist approach include B.F. Skinner, known for his work on operant conditioning, and John B. Watson, who established the psychological school of behaviorism.

6. Social Psychology

Social psychology covers numerous topics that focus on society as a whole, including the observation and study of social behavior and intergroup relations.

Topics would include things such as the study of attitudes , social influences , prejudice , etc. Humans are known to be social animals that interact with one another.

Every day we encounter different people and must use social knowledge to make sense of the social group that we are all living in and make decisions.

Social psychology is thus used to reveal the many biases and misconceptions humans have, as well as how people’s behaviors are deeply influenced by one another (Eysenck, 2004).

7. Comparative Psychology

Comparative psychology is the study of similarities and differences between humans and animals. It is said to be originated by George Romanes, a British psychologist who wrote “Animal Intelligence” in 1882.

In short, it compares humans with other animals, including both qualitative and quantitative observations. 

It is especially useful to use animal models to study behaviors and psychological phenomena because they may otherwise be challenging or unethical to study in humans.

Animal models provide researchers with a way to examine the effects of stress, addiction, learning, and memory on behavior.

Since animals may function in similar ways as humans, psychologists study animals and draw analogies with human beings to arrive at conclusions (Greenberg, 2012). Famous studies of comparative psychology would include Harlow’s monkeys and Lorenz’s geese .

8. Experimental Psychology

Experimental psychology encompasses the scientific research methods that other branches of psychology rely on. Psychologists use a scientific approach to understanding behavior, and their findings are based on scientific evidence accumulated through research.

Examples of what is involved in an experiment would be the different types of research methods (qualitative versus quantitative), the use of data analysis, correlation and causation, and hypothesis testing.

It is generally said to emerge as a branch of psychology in the 19 th century led by Wilhelm Wundt , who introduced mathematical expressions and calculations into the psychology field (Boring, 1950).

This is important because humans’ commonsense beliefs about behaviors are unreliable, and the explanations derived from them could be deceiving.

Experimental psychology ensures that psychological conclusions are not limited in their accuracy and generalizability (Myers & Hansen, 2011).

9. Child Psychology

Child psychology examines the developmental changes within the different domains of child development (Hetherington et al., 1999).

It first started with Jean Piaget , a French psychologist whose research interests were highly focused on child development, including how they think, acquire knowledge, and interact with those around them (Schwartz, 1972). 

It primarily focuses on the understanding of children’s emotional, cognitive, social, and behavioral development during these early stages of life.

Child psychology also assesses and diagnoses developmental disorders or psychological conditions that may affect children and provide interventions and treatments to support their psychological well-being and development.

10. Cross-Cultural Psychology

Cross-Cultural Psychology is a branch of psychology that studies how cultural factors influence human behavior, thoughts, and emotions.

It examines psychological differences and similarities across various cultures and ethnic groups, aiming to understand how cultural context can shape individual and group psychological processes.

11. Personality Psychology

The personality branch of psychology studies the patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that make an individual unique. It explores the traits and characteristics that define a person’s temperament, interactions, and consistent behaviors across various situations.

Theories in this field range from Freud’s psychoanalytic perspective to trait theories and humanistic approaches.

The goal is to understand the complexities of individual differences, the factors that shape personality development, and how personality influences life outcomes.

The Big Five and Myers-Briggs are both models used to describe and measure personality traits, but they differ significantly in their origins, components, and scientific validation:

• The Big Five : Often referred to as the Five-Factor Model, it identifies five broad dimensions of personality: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism (often remembered by the acronym OCEAN). This model is backed by extensive empirical research and is widely accepted in the academic community.
• Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) : This typological approach categorizes individuals into 16 personality types based on four dichotomies: Extraversion/Introversion, Sensing/Intuition, Thinking/Feeling, and Judging/Perceiving.

Applied psychology

Applied psychology takes these foundational understandings and applies them to solve real-world problems, enhancing well-being and performance in various settings. Applied psychology asks “How can we use this knowledge practically?”.

12. Clinical Psychology

The American Psychological Association defines clinical psychology as a field of psychology that “integrates science, theory, and practice to understand, predict, and alleviate maladjustment, disability, and discomfort as well to promote human adaptation, adjustment, and personal development” (American Psychological Association, Division 12, 2012).

In simplified terms, it is a branch of psychology focusing on understanding mental illness and looking for the best ways of providing care for individuals, families, and groups.

Through strong research, clinical psychologists offer ongoing and comprehensive mental and behavioral healthcare for individuals, couples, families, and all sorts of different groups.

They also provide consultation services to agencies and communities, as well as training, education, supervision, and research-based practice.

The work of a clinical psychologist thus includes assessing patients’ health status, performing psychotherapy, teaching, researching, consulting, and more (Kramer et al., 2019). The branch would also understand the diagnostic criteria of mental illness.

13. Educational Psychology

Educational psychology is a branch of psychology that focuses on understanding how people learn and develop in educational settings.

It uses psychological science to enhance the learning process of students and applies psychological findings to promote educational success in a classroom (Lindgren & Suter, 1967).

Educational psychologists do things such as improve teaching techniques, develop specialized learning materials, and monitor educational outcomes.

Psychologists have argued that education is a tripolar process involving the interaction between the educator and the student, as well as the educator and the student understanding oneself and acting accordingly in an educational or social setting.

The social environment, on the other hand, provides subtle influences on both sides. Educational psychology aims to understand and enhance education through understanding these interactions (Aggarwal, 2010).

Under this branch of psychology, there is also school psychology. School psychology is defined as the general practice of psychology involving learners of all ages, and the process of schooling.

For instance, psychological assessments, interventions, and preventions, as well as mental health promotion programs focusing on the development processes of youth in the context of the school system are all considered to be part of school psychology.

School psychologists access the school environment to ensure and promote positive learning outcomes for youth, and ensure healthy psychological development of students.

Other than students, they also support the families, teachers, and other professionals who work to support the students (Merrell et al., 2011).

14. Counseling Psychology

Counseling psychology is defined as a holistic healthcare specialty that employs diverse information (such as culture) and methodologies (such as motivational interviewing and cognitive behavioral therapy) to enhance an individual’s mental well-being and reduce maladaptive behaviors.

The aim is to help individuals cope with various life challenges, emotions, mental health symptoms, etc. People who seek counseling explore their thoughts and behaviors with a counselor and seek to improve their wellbeing and develop coping strategies.

Counseling psychologists work with people of all cultural backgrounds, and conduct activities such as crisis intervention, trauma management, diagnosing mental disorders, treatment evaluation, and consulting (Oetting, 1967).

15. Forensic Psychology

Forensic psychology is the branch of applied psychology that focuses on collecting, examining, and presenting evidence for judicial purposes.

Psychologists in this branch work on court cases in assessing behavioral problems and psychological disorders in criminal profiles , determining the mental status of criminals, and whether or not compensation could be awarded for “psychological damage”.

Researchers in this branch also investigate false confessions and psychological vulnerabilities in criminals, together with methods of improving societal bias and police practice (Gudjonsson & Haward, 2016).

16. Health Psychology

Health psychology has been widely defined using Matarazzo’s definition, summarized as any activity of psychology that involves any aspect of health or the healthcare system.

It includes areas ranging from prevention to treatment of illness and the analysis and diagnosis of health-related dysfunctions. It often promotes healthy lifestyles and disease prevention.

Health psychology emphasizes the health system and how patients as well as psychologists interact within the system, having the goal of optimizing communication and treatment at the same time.

Health psychologists look at problems such as the cost of healthcare, chronic psychological illness, as well as political and economic needs (Feuerstein et al., 1986).

This is different from clinical psychology, which concentrates more on treating and diagnosing mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders, providing therapy and strategies for managing mental health issues.

17. Sports Psychology

Sports psychology is in general seen as a field of study where principles of psychology are used or applied to sport. In history, many different perspectives have been taken in determining the definition of sports psychology.

For example, when seen as a branch of psychology, this study focuses on understanding psychological theories when applied to sports.

When seen more as a subdiscipline of sport science, this branch of psychology focuses on enhancing and explaining behavior in the sports context (Horn, 2008).

Overall, sports psychology is crucial in optimizing athletes’ performance by addressing their sports’ emotional and physical aspects, such as arousal regulation, pre-performance routines, goal-setting techniques, etc.

18. Community Psychology

Community psychology focuses on thinking about human behavior within the context of a community.

It requires a shift in perspective since it operates to prevent a problem from occurring and promoting healthy functioning for the community rather than treating individual problems after they arise.

Research under this branch examines factors on the macro neighborhood and community level that either enhances or impedes the psychological health of a community rather than internal psychological processes of an individual (Kloos, 2012).

19. Industrial-organizational psychology

Industrial-organizational psychology is the branch of psychology that studies how principles of psychology act on human beings who are operating within the business and industry context.

The definition has evolved over time to include more wide-ranged work-related topics, and looks at interactions between people and institutions.

Psychologists in this field center around enhancing productivity, staff well-being, and organizational work performance.

They utilize scientific methodologies and concepts to tackle workplace predicaments such as staff recruitment, training, appraisal, inspiration, job contentment, and workplace culture (Forces, 2003).

20. Family Psychology

Family psychology is considered a clinical science that focuses on discovering the truth behind families and the individuals inside them while improving the well-being of families.

It includes research in biological systems such as how genetics contributes to mental disorders and larger scopes of how community resources could be used to strengthen family relationships.

Through understanding family dynamics and supporting family relationships, this branch of psychology helps families navigate the complexities that arise in their relationships, promoting healthy relationships and overall wellbeing (Pinsof & Lebow, 2005).

21. Media Psychology

Media psychology refers to the use of psychology in the usage and production of media.

It includes areas such as making new technologies more user-friendly, using media to enhance clinical psychology, and studying how media may contribute to sociological and psychological phenomena in society (Luskin & Friedland, 1998).

The field has also evolved to include more emerging technologies and applications, such as interactive media, internet, and video games.

22. Environmental Psychology

Environmental psychology looks at the interrelationship between human behavior and environments. It examines how people’s behavior, emotions, and well-being are influenced by natural and built surroundings, such as homes, workplaces, urban spaces, and natural landscapes.

With models in the psychological field in mind, environmental psychologists work to protect, manage, and design environments that enhance human behavior, and diagnose any problems that occur in the process.

Some common topics have included the effects of environmental stress on human performance and how humans process information in an unfamiliar environment (De Young, 1999).

Aggarwal, J. C. (2010).  Essentials of educational psychology . Vikas Publishing House. Boring, Edwin G. (1950).  A History of Experimental Psychology (2nd ed.). Prentice-Hall.

De Young, R. (1999 ). Environmental psychology.

Eysenck, M. W. (2004).  Psychology: An international perspective . Taylor & Francis.

Feuerstein, M., Labbé, E. E., Kuczmierczyk, A. R. (1986 ). Health psychology : a psychobiological perspective.  Netherlands: Springer US.

Forces, I. (2003). Industrial-organizational psychology.  Handbook of Psychology: Volume 1, History of Psychology, 3 67.

Greenberg, G. (2012). Comparative psychology and ethology. In N. M. Seele (Ed.). Encyclopedia of the sciences of learning (pp. 658-661). New York: Springer

Gudjonsson, G. H., & Haward, L. R. (2016).  Forensic psychology: A guide to practice . Routledge.

Guilford, J. P., & Anastasi, A. (1950).  Fields of psychology, basic and applied  (2d ed.). Van Nostrand.

Hetherington, E. M., Parke, R. D., & Locke, V. O. (1999).  Child psychology: A contemporary viewpoint  (5th ed.). McGraw-Hill.

Hooley, J. M., Nock, M., & Butcher, J. N. (2019). Abnormal psychology (18th ed.). Pearson. 

Horn, T. S. (2008).  Advances in sport psychology . Human kinetics. 

Kloos, B., Hill, J., Thomas, E., Wandersman, A., Elias, M. J., & Dalton, J. H. (2012). Community psychology . Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning.

Kramer, G. P., Bernstein, D. A., & Phares, V. (2019).  Introduction to clinical psychology . Cambridge University Press.

Lindgren, H. C., & Suter, W. N. (1967).  Educational psychology in the classroom  (Vol. 956). New York: Wiley.

Luskin, B. J., & Friedland, L. (1998). Task force report: Media psychology and new technologies. Washington, DC: Media Psychology Division 46 of the American Psychological Association

Malpass, R. S. (1977). Theory and method in cross-cultural psychology.  American Psychologist, 32(12), 1069–1079.  https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.32.12.1069

Merrell, K. W., Ervin, R. A., & Peacock, G. G. (2011).  School psychology for the 21st century: Foundations and practices . Guilford Press.

Myers, A., & Hansen, C. H. (2011).  Experimental psychology . Cengage Learning. 

Oetting, E. R. (1967). Developmental definition of counseling psychology.  Journal of Counseling Psychology, 14 (4), 382–385.  https://doi.org/10.1037/h0024747

Pinsof, W. M., & Lebow, J. L. (Eds.). (2005).  Family psychology: The art of the science . Oxford University Press.

Schwartz, E. (1972). The Psychology of The Child. Jean Piaget and Barbel Inhelder. New York: Basic Books, 1969. 159 pp.  Psychoanalytic Review ,  59 (3), 477-479.

Society of Clinical Psychology. (2012). In American Psychological Association (Vol. 12). essay. 

Thomas, R. K. (2022). “Pure” versus “Applied” psychology: An historical conflict between     edward B. titchener (pure) and ludwig R. geissler (applied).  The Psychological Record, 72 (1), 131-143. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s40732-021-00460-3

1st Edition

Flourishing in Music Education Lessons from Positive Psychology

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Description

Flourishing in Music Education: Lessons from Positive Psychology presents research, theory, and best practices about potential pitfalls, as well as strategies for how successful music teachers can negotiate issues in the wake of the COVID-19 climate, both on a daily and long-term basis. Masked and physically distanced classes have been particularly challenging for studio practice and group rehearsals, leading to virtual and digitally edited performances. This concise book is an essential read for those faced with such challenges, addressing key topics including engagement, relationships, meaning, accomplishment, resilience, and hope. Readers are provided with vignettes of struggling and successful music educators, which are then used to examine and consider new techniques and classic reminders for healthy enjoyment of work and life.

Table of Contents

H. Christian Bernhard II , Ph.D. is Professor of Music Education at The State University of New York at Fredonia, where he teaches undergraduate courses in instrumental music methods and rehearsal techniques, as well as graduate courses in music education history, philosophy, psychology, assessment, and curriculum.

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Back-to-school story ideas: Transitioning back to a routine, cell phone-free schools, importance of STEM, and more

12 Aug 2024

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Virginia Tech has experts available to speak on back-to-school topics ranging from cell phones in school, nutrition standards, the importance of STEM education, and more.

To schedule an interview, please contact [email protected] .

Strategies to transition back to school

Lack of structures and expectations during summer can make the transition back to school more difficult. Rosanna Breaux , a child psychologist at Virginia Tech, suggests using some of these strategies the week or two before school begins to help get children back into a routine:

 Set some limits around screen time during weekdays.

 Implement 30-60 minutes a day of reading, or completing writing or math worksheets, to get their minds back into a school mindset.

Establish a consistent bedtime schedule that is in line with when they will go to bed and get up in the morning when they are in school.

Once school starts, Breaux recommends focusing on the following healthy habits and routines:

Keep a consistent bedtime schedule on weekdays and weekends (i.e., go to bed within the same one-hour period, wake up within the same one-hour period).

Encourage regular exercise and outdoor time. This can be particularly hard as it gets colder, but getting 30-45 minutes of moderate exercise, five days per week can help children manage emotions and focus better.

Figure out time-saving strategies that will make things easier on you and your children: meal prepping, and having a range of healthy snack options available in the house and car to grab and go.

More here .

Cell phone-free schools

Students in Virginia’s public schools won’t be needing their cell phones as they head to school. Many school boards are enacting cell-phone free educational and instructional rules, and some are beginning this fall. What does this mean for students, teachers, and parents? How will teachers adapt to policing the cell phone rules in their classrooms? Chuck Lowery , associate professor of educational leadership and policy studies in the School of Education, can share various perspectives connected with this ruling and what it means for student learning moving forward.

School lunches: Nutrition standards and the need for free or reduced lunch

Back-to-school season may conjure up memories of school food and cafeterias. From new nutrition standards for lunches to why schools offer free and reduced meals, Marcus Weaver Hightower , a professor in the School of Education, can share his insight. Weaver Hightower also can discuss the universally free lunch program in Minnesota schools launched by Governor Tim Walz, candidate for vice president of the United States. In 2022, Weaver Hightower published the book, Unpacking school lunch: Understanding the hidden politics of school food .

Why sleep is so important for kids

With busy schedules both in and after school, children’s days are stretched thinner than ever. That only puts more emphasis on the importance of sleep, for both their physical and mental health. Dr. Abhishek Reddy is a child and adolescent psychologist with training in sleep medicine. He’s conducted research on the connection between insomnia and depression in adolescents, and can speak to ways treating underlying mental health and sleep-related conditions in children.

The significance of school physicals and immunizations

The start of a new school year is a great reminder to get your child to the doctor for their yearly physical and ensure they are up to date on their immunizations. Many school systems require them for entrance or to play sports. Dr. Christopher Pierce , interim co-chair of pediatrics for the Virginia Tech Carilion School of Medicine, and Dr. Vydia Permashwar , vice chair of pediatrics, explain the importance of both school physicals and immunizations.

“A school physical, especially for the younger ages, is a comprehensive visit that aims to identify any conditions that may impact a child’s ability to learn and provide schools with that information,” Permashwar says. “These physicals provide opportunities for catch-up and booster vaccines to prevent illnesses, screening for anemia, hearing and vision screenings, identify developmental issues, and use diagnoses to come up with plans to maximize their success in school. They can help with working out plans of action with your child’s physician.”

“Immunizations in general provide a concept of herd immunity, which limits the exposure and possible breakthrough for those who have poor immunity or are immunocompromised,” Pierce says. “Middle and high school immunizations are for cancer and meningitis prevention specifically. The amazing, positive impact for these vaccines is profound, as they prevent diseases that have lifelong implications.”

Importance of engineering education for young children

Sparking an interest in engineering at a young age can help drive creativity and collaboration while preparing students for future academic and career endeavors. Kim Lester has been with the Center for the Enhancement of Engineering Diversity (CEED) since 2015 and has experienced the benefits of introducing STEM concepts to K-12 students firsthand. Lester says that unless they have a STEM professional in their family, it can be very difficult for a K-12 student to picture what a career in engineering might look like.

“As an educator, I see the benefits of exposing young minds to the exciting and varied careers that STEM fields can provide. Decisions about coursework starting in middle school can affect the opportunities these students have later, so it is critical we show them and their families the path forward. Nothing brings me more joy than when a 7th grader admits they only came to camp because their mom made them, but now they want to know what’s next.”

Building engineers, brick by brick

For many students interested in pursuing engineering, Legos are the gateway. Sally Hamouda and her computer science undergraduate research assistants are working with elementary students in hopes of inspiring other kids to pursue STEM careers through their program, Codekids .

Using the Virginia state curriculum in partnership with Floyd County elementary schools, Hamouda and her students are designing and building a range of digital tools that can be used by K-12 teachers to introduce mathematical and computer science concepts at a grade-appropriate level to elementary students. The curriculum uses Legos to create patterns to solve problems in unique ways.

“This allows teachers of various subjects to use our tools in the classroom without having to design and build their own. That’s my end goal,” Hamouda said.

Margaret Ashburn

540-529-0814

• Child psychology
• College of Engineering
• College of Liberal Arts and Human Sciences
• College of Science
• Computer Science
• Media Advisory
• School of Education
• Virginia Tech Carilion School of Medicine

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America’s students are falling behind. Here’s how to reimagine the classroom

Psychologists have the research and expertise schools critically need right now

Vol. 55 No. 3 Print version: page 54

• Schools and Classrooms

It’s a familiar refrain: “America’s students are falling behind.”

Academic progress stalled during the pandemic and has yet to recover. But historic declines in test scores and growing achievement gaps are just part of the problem. Youth mental health issues surged ; behavioral problems increased ; and more teachers left the profession —creating a situation many are calling alarming.

“It should have been obvious to all of us that after a highly disruptive year, kids would come back with issues. But unfortunately, teachers often did not get the resources they needed, such as increased mental health support, to be able to respond to those issues,” said Russell Skiba, PhD, a professor of school psychology at Indiana University Bloomington and an expert in classroom management. One result was a return to more punitive discipline policies in some schools—policies researchers have long known to be ineffective, he added.

But the prospects for U.S. students are not all bleak. Researchers, practitioners, and policymakers are on the scene with creative solutions—more rigorous ways to evaluate student progress, different approaches to teaching and learning, and collaborations that make career training possible from an early age. They are also delivering on-the-ground support, including trauma-informed care and interventions designed to improve school belonging and discipline—using science to get student and educator well-being back on track.

[ Related: Schools in crisis: Here are science-backed ways to improve schools now ]

More progress is needed in guiding educators toward science-backed innovations. “The biggest thing that needs to change is that we need engagement with what the evidence says, in conversation with researchers,” said educational psychologist Francesca Lopez, PhD, a professor of education at Penn State.

To that end, psychologists are touching every part of the school experience, from big ideas about how to reimagine the classroom to targeted interventions that help students and teachers thrive each day. And it is not just about inventing something new. Some are leveraging research insights along with lived expertise to return to doing the basics well.

“What are the strategies that will work to help kids recover and thrive, based upon what we know about kids, education, and the science behind it?” said Randi Weingarten, JD, president of the American Federation of Teachers (AFT).

Skills for today and tomorrow

Among the most exciting changes in education is personalized learning backed by sound science, with the goal of making learning more effective for each student.

In some districts, learning is no longer confined to the walls of an individual school. Denver Public Schools allows middle and high school students to customize their curriculum with a combination of virtual and in-person courses across the entire district. That setup allows more students to access specialized opportunities, including instruction in cybersecurity, nursing, and psychology.

“One school doesn’t have to offer everything to every student. Instead, we can think about the expertise across the district and create more personal learning pathways for kids,” said educational psychologist Nicole Barnes, PhD, who is the senior director for APA’s Center for Psychology in Schools and Education as well as a former elementary school teacher.

A 2015 RAND Corporation study of 62 public schools found that personalized learning approaches improved academic progress. But research also suggests that teachers in schools that already perform well on standardized tests do a better job of implementing personalized learning than those in lower-performing schools ( Lee, D., et al., Education Technology Research and Development , Vol. 69, No. 2, 2021 ). Psychological science is helping educators better parse those findings, Barnes said, by accounting for the way school context interacts with student outcomes.

In a growing number of schools, those personalized pathways also increasingly include career-focused options alongside traditional academic routes. That emphasis is fueled by partnerships with local universities and community organizations: In Washington, DC, Anacostia High School and the University of the District of Columbia joined forces to teach students about environmental science and justice. Students in the program attend conferences, participate in internship programs , and learn essential science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) skills, including how to collect and analyze data. It can also be woven into the design of an institution: The Alabama School of Cyber Technology and Engineering prepares students for roles in high-demand STEM fields, including with the Department of Defense and military contractors.

AFT is also working with 10 school districts across New York state to strengthen career and technical education (CTE) for careers in the semiconductor industry. Ninety-four percent of students enrolled in CTE programs graduate, compared with just 85% of students at traditional high schools ( “CTE Works!” Fact Sheet, Association for Career and Technical Education, 2022 ). CTE students are also more likely to attend postsecondary school and to have a higher median income 8 years later, so weaving technical skills training into K–12 education should be a priority, Weingarten said.

“With the world of artificial intelligence we’re walking into, we need application, not memorization,” she said. “These are not soft skills—they’re the skills of today and tomorrow.”

Psychologists are among those exploring how to best teach the skills of tomorrow, including critical thinking and information literacy skills. For example: What is real and what is written by Russian bots? How can you trust something you read online? How can you tell when a politician uses manipulation or scare tactics?

“We know from research that this kind of education needs to start early ,” said Susan A. Nolan, PhD, a professor of psychology at Seton Hall University in New Jersey, adding that research suggests belief in conspiracy theories starts around age 14 ( Jolley, D., et al., British Journal of Developmental Psychology , Vol. 39, No. 3, 2021 ).

At Arizona State University, the Center on Reinventing Public Education is exploring how school districts are already using AI and how they can step up their game . Teachers across the nation are experimenting with ways to embrace AI tools , including encouraging its use for outlining papers and challenging students to compare ChatGPT’s outputs with their own ( Zhang, P., & Tur, G., European Journal of Education , online first publication, 2023 ).

While the standard curriculum is still adapting to the advent of ChatGPT, the role of educators is already beginning to shift, Barnes said. Instead of a “sage on the stage” delivering lectures, some schools are shifting teachers into facilitator roles to better support students in developing critical thinking, communication, and relationship-building skills.

Educators are also rethinking how to evaluate students. The nonprofit Mastery Transcript Consortium has developed a new approach to grading: Rather than evaluating students in snapshots when a grading period ends, they learn at their own pace and are rated continually on their progress and mastery of specific skills. That approach is based on research by psychologists and others showing that competency-based learning can boost test scores, improve self-efficacy, and more.

Experts say these shifts are poised to better prepare students for careers of the future, but their implementation varies significantly from one school, district, and state to the next, with most U.S. schools still following a more traditional model. AFT is one example of an organization working to enact broader change through its Real Solutions for Kids and Communities campaign. The multistate effort focuses on providing schools with training and resources to address learning loss, improve student mental health, and provide direct support to help families thrive.

A key tenet of the plan is to increase the number of community schools , which deliver medical, dental, and mental health care to families. A 2023 Department of Education survey of more than 1,300 public schools found that 60% partnered with one or more community organizations to provide noneducational services, up from 45% the year prior ( School Pulse Panel, National Center for Education Statistics, 2023 ).

“If schools can become true centers of community, that is, in our view, the most efficacious and economic way of addressing loneliness and boosting mental health,” Weingarten said.

Enhancing instruction

Psychological research is central to efforts to improve education, starting at the most basic level: pedagogy itself.

Broadly, research on how we learn supports a shift away from direct instruction (the “sage on the stage” model) to experiential, hands-on learning—often called guided play—especially in early education ( Skene, K., et al., Child Development , Vol. 93, No. 4, 2022 ). Active Playful Learning , an evidence-based program developed by psychologists Roberta Golinkoff, PhD, of the University of Delaware, and Kathy Hirsh-Pasek, PhD, of Temple University in Philadelphia, leverages those research insights with the goal of bringing joy back into the classroom for both students and teachers ( Theory Into Practice , Vol. 62, No. 2, 2023 ).

“With guided play, teachers actually collaborate with students to work toward a learning goal they have in mind,” said Golinkoff, who is also a member of the National Academy of Education. “If this happened more, teachers would be happier, and kids would feel more valued as agents of their own learning.”

For example, a first-grade geometry direct instruction lesson might start with a teacher explaining the names and properties of squares, circles, and triangles and finish with a worksheet where students identify and draw each shape. In a guided play lesson, students might visit stations around the classroom where they build structures using specific geometric shapes, receiving feedback from their teacher along the way. Pilot studies in Pennsylvania, New Hampshire, and Michigan show promising results, and Golinkoff and her colleagues received $20 million from the LEGO Foundation to expand tests of the program to schools throughout the country.

Educational psychologists are helping teachers explore how their own beliefs, emotions, and identities may influence their effectiveness in the classroom. Dionne Cross Francis, PhD, a professor of education at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, works with elementary school mathematics teachers to explore how their past experiences and beliefs about math may influence the way they teach ( Frontiers in Psychology , Vol. 11, 2020 ).

“Many bring some degree of negative emotions, dispositions, and even trauma from their own experiences of mathematics in school to the classroom,” said Cross Francis, who is president of APA’s Division 15 (Educational Psychology) . “If that’s not resolved, they can easily pass on those anxieties to their students.”

Cross Francis’s six-step coaching model starts with extensive data collection, including surveys, an hour-long interview, and a video of the subject teaching. Using that data, she delivers individualized coaching, which may include mastery experiences to boost self-efficacy or a critical look at teaching practices that are not working well.

By making teaching more effective, such efforts also help address the growing issue of teacher retention. Large international surveys across both Eastern and Western societies indicate that teachers’ job satisfaction is linked to the quality of instruction they provide ( Harrison, M. G., et al., British Educational Research Journal , Vol. 49, No. 3, 2023 ).

“My approach is directly designed to support teacher retention,” Cross Francis said. “If they feel validated and empowered in their work, that ultimately improves well-being.”

Supporting teachers

Teacher well-being is undoubtedly suffering, with frequent job-related stress about twice as common as it is in the general population, according to a survey by the RAND Corporation ( Restoring Teacher and Principal Well-Being Is an Essential Step for Rebuilding Schools, RAND, 2022 ). More than half of educators polled in a 2022 National Education Association (NEA) survey said they were thinking about leaving the profession ( Poll Results: Stress and Burnout Pose Threat of Educator Shortages, NEA, 2022 [PDF, 344KB] ).

In addition to their teaching responsibilities, many have spent the postpandemic years fielding emotional and behavioral outbursts and other problems they are often ill-equipped to manage ( Baker, C. N., et al., School Psychology Review , Vol. 50, No. 4, 2021 ). They are also facing unprecedented levels of violence on the job. An APA survey of more than 15,000 teachers and school staff across the country found that 54% were threatened at work in the year preceding July 2021 ( Violence Against Educators and School Personnel: Crisis During Covid , APA, 2022 [PDF, 206KB]) .

“Psychologists have a really important role to play in addressing teacher well-being, the violence teachers experience, and the record rates of burnout,” said Stacy Overstreet, PhD, a professor of psychology at Tulane University.

At Tulane, the nationally funded Coalition for Compassionate Schools (CCS) unites government, community, and educational organizations to support 17 schools in New Orleans. In addition to several programs focused on students, CCS dispatches a team to schools after a crisis occurs (for example, the death of a student or the permanent closure of a school in the district) that is specifically focused on supporting educators. The center is also creating a series to educate teachers about secondary traumatic stress, an indirect result of supporting students who have faced trauma, as well as strategies for addressing it.

Basic stress-reduction techniques can make a big difference for both teachers and students. Delaying school start times so that teachers can get more sleep helps improve their daytime functioning ( Wahlstrom, K. L., et al., Journal of School Health , Vol. 93, No. 2, 2023 ). Plenty of research shows that starting school later would benefit students , too, but policymakers and school boards rarely make changes.

Mind-body interventions, which have a growing evidence base, are increasingly used in schools and can benefit students and teachers, said Melissa Bray, PhD, a professor and the director of the school psychology program at the University of Connecticut. Examples include breathing exercises, relaxation and guided imagery, yoga, and nature-based therapies, such as taking a mindful walk outside ( Cozzolino, M., et al., Human Arenas , Vol. 5, 2022 ).

CCS trains educators on trauma-informed approaches to working with students and helps schools develop an action plan to improve behavior and well-being across the board. For example, teachers learn to build safe and supportive classrooms using rituals and routines that create a sense of predictability and trust. A “calm down corner” gives students agency in controlling their emotions, and morning community building circles provide an opportunity to discuss experiences that affect the whole group. CCS also helps teachers develop their own emotion regulation skills and enhance teacher-student relationships using the Search Institute’s Developmental Relationships Framework . Outcomes include improved student engagement and fewer class disruptions, as well as more proactive classroom management efforts by teachers (2015–2022 Impact Report, 2022).

Such programs could be crucial because postpandemic behavioral challenges have led some schools to reinstate discipline policies known to be ineffective—even harmful. The so-called zero-tolerance approach, common in the 1990s, involves mandatory penalties (such as a suspension or arrest) for students caught with drugs or weapons.

“Coercive and punitive approaches are ineffective and especially harmful to Black and brown students,” Skiba said. “We know that they have both short- and long-term negative effects and do nothing to increase the safety of schools.”

Skiba and other psychologists have helped develop, test, and promote research-backed alternatives to zero tolerance, including social-emotional learning, restorative justice practices, and Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) . PBIS, which is used in more than 25,000 schools across the country, is linked with reductions in out-of-school suspensions and other improvements in school climate.

“We need order in schools, but our attempts to bring order must be grounded in building relationships with children and showing them that we care about their future,” Skiba said.

One relationship-building intervention shows particular promise in an area where many other classroom management approaches have fallen short: reducing racial disparities in discipline. Empathic discipline , developed by Jason Okonofua, PhD, an assistant professor of psychology at the University of California, Berkeley, helps teachers develop a growth mindset toward their students and the capacity for an improved teacher-student relationship, as well as gain perspective about each student’s experience. Studies of empathic discipline show that it can reduce racial disparities in school suspension by up to 50% ( Science Advances , Vol. 8, No. 12, 2022 ; PNAS , Vol. 113, No. 19, 2016 ).

Shifting the overall culture in schools from a fixed to a growth mindset—including via informal messages adults send children, as well as formal learning opportunities such as the ability to revise an assignment for additional credit—could even be a means of reducing educational disparities around the world ( npj Science of Learning , Vol. 8, 2023 ). These “tier 1” supports that teachers can learn and use with all students are where psychologists hold the most power to improve the context of education, said David Yeager, PhD, an associate professor of psychology at the University of Texas at Austin and author of 10 to 25: The Science of Motivating Young People .

“Empowering teachers with concrete, evidence-based advice for busy professionals, whose main job is not to provide psychological help, is a place where our field could make a really big difference,” said Yeager, who is the coprincipal investigator of the National Study of Learning Mindsets and the Texas Mindset Initiative.

Promoting belonging in school

When students feel they are accepted, supported, and valued at school, they do better academically, socially, and behaviorally ( Korpershoek, H., et al., Research Papers in Education , Vol. 35, No. 6, 2020 ). But for students from marginalized groups, a sense of belonging at school could even be lifesaving. In a 2023 study of more than 4,000 Black adolescents, a decrease in school belonging was associated with a 35% increased risk for suicidal thoughts and attempts ( Boyd, D. T., et al., Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities , 2023 ).

Part of belonging at school is being able to seek support from a trusted source, such as an adult from the same racial or ethnic background. In Seattle, Janine Jones, PhD, a professor of school psychology at the University of Washington, has launched a project that will increase the number of Black male psychologists in the district from 1 to 12.

“Across the country, our school workforce is not as diverse as our population of students,” she said. “Through this project, 20% of the district’s school psychologists will be people who are more representative of who they’re serving.”

Students also benefit when they take classes with others who look like them, especially in advanced placement and STEM courses ( Educational Psychology Review , Vol. 34, No. 4, 2022 ; Bowman, N., et al., AERA Open , online first publication, 2023 ). Sandra Graham, PhD, a professor of human development and psychology at the University of California, Los Angeles, who has led research on that link, said it suggests a major downside of academic tracking, which separates students based on ability level, for young people from underrepresented groups.

“When you see other people like you in your classes, you feel more like you belong, and belonging is related to academic achievement,” Graham said.

Her research shows that increased school diversity can benefit all students. Higher diversity is linked to lower rates of bullying, due in part to shifts in power dynamics, and can improve adolescents’ attitudes toward people from other racial and ethnic groups ( Development and Psychopathology , Vol. 35, No. 5 , 2023 ; Educational Psychologist , Vol. 53, No. 2, 2018 ).

“We have the science behind us to say that we need to promote diversity in schools because it makes school a better place for everybody,” Graham said.

Culturally responsive education practices, including policies that provide adequate sociocultural education for teachers working with bilingual students, are a scientifically sound way to increase school belonging, said Lopez, of Penn State. But educational gag orders and book bans in at least 22 states often paint culturally responsive education as a means of scapegoating students from historically dominant groups ( Educational Censorship, PEN America, 2023 ). Lopez is working with Aspen Institute’s Education and Society Program to create user-friendly policy briefs that summarize research showing the contrary.

“We know that educational gag orders and book bans are making many marginalized students feel like their very identity is threatened, which is why it’s so important to counter the harmful misinformation surrounding them,” she said.

Increasing the school psychology workforce

Big-picture goals for the future should include broader efforts to influence the school context—for example by improving school belonging and mindset culture—rather than a focus on individual student-level interventions, Yeager said. Such programs have received less attention to date, he said, partly because it is difficult to randomize entire schools to test them.

Even if the overall school context gets healthier, there will always be kids who need extra support, and there are still far too few school psychologists to help them. Bray said we know what interventions work, but we often do not have the resources to implement them at scale.

“We need more school psychologists—there’s a dire shortage in the nation. More professionals would allow us to spend more time on interventions and less time on paperwork,” she said. But some hopeful changes, including increased funding from the U.S. Department of Education and more flexible training programs, are starting to boost the ranks of school psychologists.

[ Related: There’s a strong push for more school psychologists ]

Outside the school walls, AFT, APA, and others are committed to challenging social media companies to protect young people. The joint Likes vs. Learning report points to the risks of harm and ways to mitigate them, including limiting feed scrolling for teenagers during the school day or providing a hotline schools can call when bullying happens.

“We did this to show just how easy it is for these companies to change things,” Weingarten said. “There are things they could do—they just choose not to.”

Educational quality in the United States is still largely determined by ZIP code, which will remain the case as long as schools are funded at the local level, Golinkoff said. Changing that model would be a powerful way to reduce disparities, but plenty of other things can happen in the meantime.

“There are big things that have to change around education,” she said. “But we can make education better now. We don’t need to wait for those things to change.”

Information and resources

Learn more about the current state of education, challenges schools are facing, and promising psychological research on education:

Making the case: Compelling data on competency-based teaching and learning Knowledge Works, 2024

Education’s long Covid Lewis, K., & Kuhfeld, M., Center for School and Student Progress, 2023

The alarming state of the American student in 2022 Lake, R., & Pillow, T., The Brookings Institution, 2022

What does the research say about the effectiveness of zero-tolerance school discipline policies? Institute of Education Sciences, 2020

United we learn: Honoring America’s racial and ethnic diversity in education Aspen Institute, 2021

Learning through play: A review of the evidence (PDF, 5.54 MB) Zosh, J. M., et al., The LEGO Foundation, 2017

Continued progress: Promising evidence on personalized learning Pane, J. F., et al., RAND Corporation, 2015

Further reading

Making schools work: Bringing the science of learning to joyful classroom practice Hirsh-Pasek, K., et al., Teachers College Press, 2022

College is not the only answer: 7 policy recommendations to help youth succeed Lammers, J., The 74, 2023

Psychologists highlighting the urgent need to reduce violence against teachers Stringer, H., Monitor on Psychology , September 2022

Boys are facing key challenges in school. Inside the effort to support their success Abrams, Z., Monitor on Psychology , April/May 2023

ChatGPT and the future of education: Learner-centered approaches leading the way Sam, S., Education Reimagined, 2023

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Continuing Education

Licensees are responsible for meeting all continuing education requirements and should review the rules carefully and frequently. Review the rules for detailed information about continuing education definitions, requirements, standards, criteria and other important specific to this profession.

How to Select and Document Continuing Education

The licensing board does not pre-approve continuing education providers, sponsors or individual programs. It is the licensees’ responsibility to determine if the continuing education programs they attend meet the requirements of their professional licensing board.

A percentage of licensees are randomly audited following each license renewal cycle. If selected, the licensee must submit to the board office an individual certificate of completion issued to the licensee or evidence of successful completion of the course from the course sponsor. These documents must contain the course title, date(s), contact hours, sponsor and licensee's name. In some instances, licensees will be requested to provide to the board additional information, including program content, objectives, presenters, location and schedule. Many times an inclusive brochure meets this requirement.

When selecting continuing education programs, licensees need to make sure they are compliant with administrative rule requirements. Some professions require licensees to meet specific requirements as a condition of renewal.  These may include limits on presentation method (e.g. self-study, ICN, etc.), specific hours on ethics and Iowa law and rules, clinical content, or hours required in a specific practice discipline.

To ensure compliance, each licensee must understand the continuing education administrative rules for their profession prior to choosing and attending a particular program. No matter what a program brochure indicates, it is the responsibility of the licensee to ensure compliance with licensing requirements.

In summary all licensees should:

• Be familiar with the continuing education requirements of their professional boards.
• Obtain inclusive written materials about continuing education programs from program sponsors for post-renewal auditing purposes.
• Maintain certificates of completion that includes the program or course title, date(s), contact hours, sponsor and licensee's name for four years.

Extension or Exemption for Disability or Illness

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If the application is from a license who is the primary caregiver for a relative who is ill or disabled and needs care from that primary caregiver, the physician shall verify the licensee's status as the primary caregiver.

A licensee who applies for an exemption shall be notified of the decision regarding the application. A licensee who obtains approval shall retain a copy of the exemption to be presented to the board upon request.

Guidelines for Continuing Education Sponsors

The licensing board does not pre-approve continuing education providers, sponsors or individual programs. It is the licensees’ responsibility to determine if the continuing education programs they attend meet the requirements of their professional licensure board.

Potential sponsors are responsible for independently determining if the programs they provide conform to the continuing education requirements set forth in the rules regulations of the professional boards.

To make this determination, thoroughly review the rules for the board(s) in which you are interested prior to offering continuing education to Iowa licensees. By providing inclusive information about the content, objectives and applicability of your program to professional practice, you will assist licensees to make informed decisions when selecting continuing education.

A percentage of licensees in every profession regulated by a licensing board are randomly selected following each license renewal cycle. For auditing purposes the licensee must submit to the board office an individual certificate of completion issued to the licensee or evidence of successful completion of the course from the course sponsor. These documents must contain the course title, date(s), contact hours, sponsor and licensee's name. In some instances, licensees will be requested to provide to the board additional information to assure compliance with continuing education requirements, including program content, objectives, presenters, location and schedule. For this reason, sponsors should provide these items to licensees in writing. An inclusive brochure may meet this requirement.

Additionally, sponsors should consider profession-specific requirements that licensees must address to assure compliance with continuing education rules when preparing written materials such as method of presentation (home study, ICN, etc.), inclusion of specific hours on ethics and Iowa law and rules, certification status by national associations or boards, clinical content, and hours required in a specific practice discipline.

In summary sponsors should:

• Be familiar with the continuing education requirements of their professional audiences.
• Provide inclusive written materials to all program participants.
• Notify licensees that materials should be retained for four years for auditing purposes.
• Provide a certificate of completion that includes the program or course title, date(s), contact hours, sponsor and licensee's name.
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Iowa Administrative Codes Common to Licensing Boards

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• Chapter 4 - Board Administrative Processes
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• Chapter 12 - Informal Settlement
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• Administrative Bulletin

Rulemaking notices, along with adopted rule changes, are published in the Iowa Administrative Bulletin. The preamble for each notice includes a summary of the proposed rule changes. The notice includes information about how to submit public comment when applicable. All comments are forwarded to the board for review prior to making a final decision on the outcome of rule change proposals.

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Iowa Practitioner Program

The Iowa Practitioner Program (IPP) is available to licensees across multiple licensing boards in Iowa. The Iowa Practitioner Review Committee (IPRC) reviews self-reports made by licensees to determine eligibility for participation. 

IPP was established in 1996 to support licensees who struggle with impairments due to alcohol or drug abuse, mental health conditions, and/or physical disorders. 

The IPRC designs an individualized health contract to meet the needs of the licensee. State law mandates that information in the possession of the IPRC remain confidential. Participation in the program is not a matter of public record.

" Impairment " means an inability to practice with reasonable safety and skill as a result of alcohol or drug abuse, dependency, or addiction, or any mental or physical disorder or disability.

" Self-report " means the licensee providing written or oral notifications to the board that the licensee has received or may receive a diagnosis as having an impairment before the board's receiving a complaint or report alleging an impairment before the date of self-report.

Criteria for Participation in IPP

The IPRC determines whether practitioners are eligible to participate in the program monitored by the committee. A person is ineligible to take part in the program for any of the following reasons:

• The practitioner engaged in the unlawful diversion or distribution of controlled illegal substances to a third party, or for personal gain or profit;
• The practitioner is already under a board order;
• The practitioner has caused harm or injury to a patient;
• The board is investigating the practitioner that concerns serious matters related to the practitioner's competence;
• The practitioner failed to provide truthful information or refused to cooperate with the board or the IPRC; or
• The practitioner has been subject to a civil administrative or criminal sanction for serious infractions of law, professional ethics, or administrative rules related to the practice.

The Health Contract

Based upon the recommendation of an approved evaluator, the IPRC creates an individualized health contract, which provides a detailed description of the goals of the program, requirements for successful completion, and the practitioner's obligations.

Note: The IPRC may refer to the board participants who are not compliant with the terms of their contract for consideration of disciplinary action.

IPRC Composition

The chairperson of the board appoints the members of the IPRC. The IPRC includes, but is not limited to, the following:

• Executive Director of the board or the director's designee from the board's staff;
• A practitioner who has remained free of addiction for two or more years after completing a recovery program for drug or alcohol dependency, addiction, or abuse;
• A physician/counselor with expertise in substance abuse/addiction treatment programs;
• A psychiatrist or psychologist; and
• A public member.

Why Use IPP?

The program encourages practitioners who have impairments to get the help they need. All information received by IPP and IPRC remains confidential as long as the practitioner complies with the terms of their agreement or health contract.

By self-reporting to IPP, the practitioner may avoid formal disciplinary action by the licensing Board. Formal disciplinary action taken against a practitioner is a matter of public record. The board reports the action to the press, the National Practitioners Data Bank (NPDB), insurance companies, and to other state and federal authorities. Participation in the program is confidential.

Health care practitioners must report knowledge of another practitioner's possible impairment to the board. Health care practitioners who fail to report colleagues with a possible impairment may be subject to disciplinary action by the board. It is in the practitioner's best interest to self-report an impairment before someone else files complaint or report.

When Should Someone Self-Report to IPP?

If any of the following apply to a practitioner, it is in that person's best interest to self-report to IPP as soon as possible:

• Charged with, and/or arrested for OWI, or for another alcohol or drug related offense;
• Disciplined by another federal or state agency for alcohol or drug abuse;
• Evaluated or treated for a substance use disorder, or is currently enrolled in a recovery program;
• Diagnosed with a mental health condition and/or a physical health condition;
• Practiced after drinking alcohol or taking an illegal or mind/mood altering substance;
• Addiction/dependence on drugs, alcohol or prescription medication; and/or
• Urged by friend(s), family or colleagues to get help for alcohol or drug abuse, or a mental or physical condition.

How to Submit a Self-Report to IPP

To self-report, a licensee may:

• Complete and submit a self-report form online ;
• Dental Board Licensees/Registrants :  [email protected] ; or
• Licensees of other Boards : [email protected]
• Dental Board Licensees/Registrants:   515.725.3491  or 
• Licensees of other Boards : 515.725.1221 .

IPP Online Forms

IPP Self-Report

Quarterly Report: IPP Participant

About the Board of Psychology

We evaluate the qualifications of applicants for licensure and grants licenses to those who qualify.

6200 Park Avenue Suite 100 Des Moines , IA 50321