Code | Title | Credits |
---|---|---|
Required | ||
SOC 6230 | Foundations of Research Methods | |
SOC 6231 | Quantitative Methods | |
SOC 6232 | Qualitative Methods | |
SOC 6238 | Development of Sociological Theory | |
or SOC 6239 | Contemporary Sociological Theory | |
SOC 6257 | Criminal Law | |
SOC 6258 | Deviance and Control | |
SOC 6259 | Criminology | |
Electives | ||
Thesis students take 9 credits in three graduate-level elective courses. Non-thesis students take 15 credits in five graduate-level elective courses. Electives must be relevant to the student's program of study. Such courses might be in Sociology (SOC) (see preapproved elective options, below), in other departments (e.g., Forensic Science) and schools (e.g., Elliott School of International Affairs), or through the Consortium of Universities of the Washington Metropolitan Area. Students must have the permission of their advisor or the director of graduate studies to take courses outside of the department. | ||
SOC 6260 | Special Topics in Criminology | |
SOC 6261 | Sociology of Law | |
SOC 6262 | Punishment, Prison, and Power | |
SOC 6263 | Race and Crime | |
SOC 6264 | Organized Crime | |
SOC 6266 | Gender and Criminal Justice | |
SOC 6295 | Research (May be taken once for 3 credits toward degree requirements with the permission of their advisor or the director of graduate studies.) | |
Required for thesis students: | ||
SOC 6999 | Thesis Research (Taken for 3 credits in each of the final two semesters for a total of 6 credits. The permission of the advisor or the director of graduate studies is required.) | |
Required for non-thesis students: | ||
Successful completion of a master's comprehensive examination. |
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In a time when the U.S. criminal justice system is under a microscope, criminologists are playing a key role in establishing a more equitable, science-based understanding of crime, policy, and social justice. Applying their theoretical knowledge and practical experience, professionals in this field support and strengthen the work of law enforcement agencies and legal professionals.
But what is criminology, really? This article will explore the many components of this rapidly evolving discipline and offer insights on how to pursue a variety of criminology careers.
Criminology is the study of crime and criminal behavior, informed by principles of sociology and other non-legal fields, including psychology, economics, statistics, and anthropology.
Criminologists examine a variety of related areas , including:
The roots of criminology trace back to a movement to reform criminal justice and penal systems more than 200 years ago. The first collection and use of crime statistics in the 19th century then laid the groundwork for generations of increasingly sophisticated tools and methods, leading to our modern use of descriptive statistics, case studies, typologies, and predictive analytics.
18th-century origins of criminal theory
Cesare Beccaria’s “On Crime and Punishments,” published in 1764, called for fitting the punishment to the severity of the crimes , as explained by the National Criminal Justice Reference Service.
The legal reference website JRank highlights the work of Beccaria and Jeremy Benthem: The motivation for people’s choices is to seek pleasure or avoid pain. Punishment for a crime should deter potential choices to break the law by ensuring that the pain of potential punishment is greater than the pleasure derived from committing the crime. This idea spurred the first efforts in the U.S. and Europe to codify and standardize the law.
Mid-20th century development of modern criminology
The mid-20th century development of “modern” criminology involved seeking to understand crime’s causes by studying sociological, psychological, and economic conditions. The American Law Institute’s work on the Model Penal Code was a 10-year effort completed in 1962. The code established new standards of criminal liability that considered the mental elements of crime.
The code served as a model for penal code revisions in several states. It was also instrumental in charting the federal penal code for the first time. The code inspired other efforts to reform criminal law through criminology research application.
“New Criminology” and the impact of social upheaval on crime
In the 20th century, new approaches to criminology focused on the causes of crime, such as conflicts between social and economic classes leading to social upheaval , as JRank explains. Social-process criminology emphasizes criminal behavior as something people learn through interaction with others, usually in small groups.
In contrast, control theory focuses on training people to behave appropriately by encouraging law-abiding behavior. Control theory’s basis is the belief that personal bonds give rise to our internal controls, such as conscience and guilt, and our external controls, such as shame, that deter us from breaking the law.
In their research, criminologists consider many perspectives on crime’s causes and effects. This multidisciplinary approach of criminologists accepts there is no single answer to why people commit crimes. JRank notes attempts to control bad behavior date back to the earliest civilizations. Today, factors may be biological, psychological, economic, or social. Criminals are motivated by greed, anger, jealousy, pride, and other emotions. They seek material gain; they want control, revenge, or power.
Potential causes of or motivations for criminal activity include:
Criminologists study crime as an illegal action society punishes through the government’s legal system. Researchers focus on the causes, prevention, and correction of crime generally. By contrast, the legal industry’s perspective of crime emphasizes specific crimes and punishments governed by statutes and regulations, as well as established legal processes.
The legal definition of a crime is an offense against public law , as UpCounsel explains. To qualify as a crime, the offense must be punishable, whether by fine, loss of freedom, or other method. Criminologists have broadened the definition of crime to include conduct that doesn’t violate existing law, as JRank reports. This includes economic exploitation, racial discrimination, and unsafe or unhealthy work environments.
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Research into criminology theories is primarily sociological or psychological. Sociological theories of criminology perceive crime as a normal human response to social conditions that are “abnormal and criminogenic,” according to JRank.
Psychological theories of criminology date back to Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory. Crime results from a failure to form healthy and loving attachments to parents. Behavioral psychology introduced the concept of rewards and punishments: A rewarded crime is repeated; a punished crime is not.
Today, three criminology theories predominate: the Classical, Positivist, and Chicago schools.
Two statistical programs run by the DOJ demonstrate the impact that criminological studies have had on responding to, reducing, and preventing crimes .
Research conducted by the Minnesota House Research Department studied the effectiveness of the theory of criminal deterrence , which dates back to the 18th century. It reached three conclusions:
Little attention was paid to the needs of crime victims until the 1970s, when the DOJ’s National Institute of Justice (NIJ) determined that a primary reason for unsuccessful prosecutions was the poor treatment of witnesses and victims by the criminal justice system. Since that time, legislation and law enforcement programs, including the Violence Against Women Act of 1990, have worked to protect and assist victims and witnesses.
Similarly, criminology research has affected how criminals are treated in custody. The American Bar Association (ABA) has developed Standards on Treatment of Prisoners that describe correctional policies and professional standards that comply with constitutional and statutory law.
Criminology has also highlighted the real cost of crimes on individuals, families, and communities. The 2017 report “Costs of Crime” from the U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO) found that new study methods will improve the accuracy of crime cost estimates, particularly in the area of compensating victims for their pain and suffering.
The primary distinction when it comes to criminology vs criminal justice is the former’s emphasis on the study of crime and the latter’s focus on society’s response to crime, as the Balance Careers explains. Criminal justice applies principles and concepts developed by criminologists to enforcing laws and investigating crimes, as well as to the trial, punishment, and rehabilitation of criminals.
The Legal Dictionary defines criminal justice as a set of procedures:
By contrast, its definition of criminology emphasizes the scientific and academic aspects of the field’s study of crime, criminal behavior, and law enforcement. Criminal justice includes the work of:
In the 20th century, the field of criminal justice arose as an effort to improve the effectiveness of law enforcement in light of expanding due process and other rights for criminal defendants, as Encyclopedia Britannica explains. The study of criminal justice expanded in the 1980s and 1990s in the form of qualitative descriptive analyses of the operations of specific criminal justice agencies.
More recent research in criminal justice emphasizes quantitative studies about the effectiveness of particular crime-fighting strategies and approaches. Researchers have studied whether an abusive spouse’s arrest prevents future incidents of abuse, and whether prison rehabilitation programs are effective in reducing recidivism.
One area of criminal justice research proven to be ineffective is the effort to predict which offenders are most likely to commit other crimes. Not only were models unable to identify habitual offenders, but researchers were questioned about whether such efforts violated people’s constitutional rights. The fear is that offenders may be punished not for what they had done but for what they might do in the future.
Such issues are at the forefront of modern discussions about the relationships between civil rights and law enforcement. With numerous studies indicating a need to address systemic racism in many corners of the justice system, future criminologists will play an important part in creating a more equitable framework for crime prevention.
Criminal justice and criminology are distinct fields, but they’re closely linked, theoretically and practically. From the viewpoint of potential criminologists and law enforcement professionals, the big difference is criminology’s focus on science and research, and criminal justice’s emphasis on application and administration.
For example, criminologists respond to a rise in homicides by studying underlying economic, sociological, and psychological conditions. By contrast, criminal justice officials respond by working to prevent future homicides and capture the perpetrators.
The two fields merge in applied criminology , which studies “real-world” problems relating to crime and criminal justice. It applies criminology concepts to actual criminal justice policy and practice. The goal is to make criminology relevant in addressing crime, victimization, and the relationship between “governmental agendas and knowledge production.”
Criminologists promote crime-fighting efforts via tools such as the New York Police Department’s CompStat system , which is now used by police departments across the country to combine crime analysis and geographic information system technologies . Their work suggests innovative ways to improve law enforcement and instill trust in the criminal justice system.
Typical employers of criminologists include law enforcement and other government agencies, university research labs, and other research institutions, as PayScale.com explains. The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) defines criminologists or penologists as sociologists who specialize in the study of crime. They investigate the social influences of crime on individuals, groups, and organizations.
The Balance Careers distinguishes criminology positions as being more academic than those in criminal justice, although there is a great degree of overlap between the two fields. For example, people typically earn a bachelor’s degree in criminology followed by a master’s degree in criminal justice, or vice versa.
Among the daily tasks of criminologists are collecting and examining evidence, visiting crime scenes, attending autopsies, and exploring the psychological aspects of a crime from investigation through conviction and rehabilitation. These tasks require the ability to organize data and evidence, conduct statistical analysis, and write reports.
The range of positions available to criminologists include jobs with federal, state, and local law enforcement, as well as public and private research organizations, think tanks, legislative bodies, and public policy bodies, as the Balance Careers reports. Criminologists strive to improve police operations via innovative programs, such as community-oriented policing and predictive policing.
The BLS forecasts that the number of jobs for all sociologists, the category that includes criminologists, will increase by 9% between 2018 and 2028, which is faster than the average growth projected for all occupations. PayScale.com reports that the median annual criminology salary is around $44,000.
These are among the career options available to criminologists.
Forensic Science Technician
Forensic science technicians assist in criminal investigations . They collect and analyze evidence, including fingerprints, weapons, and body fluids. They photograph and sketch crime scenes, and they catalog and preserve evidence before it is transferred to crime labs. They also work in labs, investigate possible suspects, and consult with experts in forensic medicine.
The BLS reports that the median annual salary of forensic science technicians as of May 2019 was $59,150. The number of jobs is forecast to increase by 14% between 2018 and 2028, which is much faster than the average projected for all occupations.
Probation and Community Control Officer
According to BLS figures, the median annual salary for probation officers and correctional treatment specialists was $54,290 as of May 2019. The number of jobs for the position is forecast to increase by 3% between 2018 and 2028, which is lower than the average projected for all occupations.
Probation and community control officers help former offenders transition to productive lives after incarceration. The Balance Careers lists the duties of probation and community control officers .
Police Officer
The median annual salary for police officers and detectives as of May 2019 was $65,170, according to the BLS. Jobs for police officers and detectives are expected to increase by 5% between 2018 and 2028, which is equal to the average projected for all occupations.
Police officers are tasked with protecting the lives and property of community residents. The BLS explains the duties of police officers :
Corrections Officer
The median annual salary of corrections officers as of May 2019 was $47,830, according to BLS figures. The number of positions for corrections officers is forecast to decline by 7% between 2018 and 2028 as a result of expected reductions in prison populations.
Corrections officers oversee people who have been arrested and are awaiting a hearing or trial, as well as people who have been convicted and sentenced to serve time in jail or prison. The BLS notes the duties of corrections officers :
Loss Prevention Manager
PayScale.com reports the median annual salary for loss prevention managers is around $52,000. The most common tasks of loss prevention managers are security risk management, safety compliance, inventory control, theft prevention, and security policies and procedures.
A loss prevention manager’s primary responsibility is to prevent business losses due to internal or external theft, fraud, accidents, mishandling, or other causes , as PayScale.com explains. Other duties of loss prevention managers appear on O*Net Online:
Detective/Criminal Investigator
Also referred to as detectives, criminal investigators are police officers who gather facts and collect evidence in criminal cases . The BLS notes that criminal investigators often specialize in a single category of crime, such as fraud or homicide. These are the primary duties of criminal investigators:
The median annual salary for detectives and criminal investigators as of May 2019 was $83,170, according to BLS figures. The number of jobs for police officers and detectives is forecast to increase by 5% between 2018 and 2028, which is equal to the average for all occupations.
Fish and Game Warden
The BLS reports that the median annual salary for fish and game wardens as of May 2019 was $57,500. The number of jobs for fish and game wardens is expected to increase by 2% between 2018 and 2028, which is below the average projected for all occupations.
Fish and game wardens are responsible for enforcing laws related to hunting, fishing, and boating , as the BLS describes. These are among their primary duties:
Private Investigator
The median annual salary for private detectives and investigators as of May 2019 was $50,510, according to BLS figures. The number of jobs for private investigators is forecast to grow by 8% between 2018 and 2028, which is faster than the average growth projected for all occupations.
The work done by private investigators for businesses and individuals mirrors that done by criminal investigators for public law enforcement agencies. These professionals examine records and conduct other research relating to legal, financial, and personal matters. The BLS lists the duties of private detectives and investigators :
Insurance Fraud Investigator
The BLS reports that the median annual salary for claims adjusters, examiners, and investigators was $66,790 as of May 2019. The agency expects the number of jobs for the category to decline by 4% between 2018 and 2028 due to automation of claims processing.
The position of insurance fraud investigator is included in the broad category of claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators who evaluate insurance claims. These are among the principle duties of insurance fraud investigators , as listed by the BLS:
An important role played by criminologists is compiling and reporting on crime statistics. The New Yorker highlights both the importance of crime statistics in formulating crime-prevention strategies and enforcement policies and the difficulty criminologists encounter in accurately measuring crime .
The article describes the challenge in determining whether cannabis use increases or reduces crime levels. Various analyses of crime rate trends in states where cannabis has been legalized have come to conflicting conclusions, pointing to the complexity of arriving at a definitive answer about what contributes to criminal activity. Criminologists use a variety of sources and techniques to try to provide statistics that can accurately portray crime trends and inform criminal policies.
Two of the DOJ’s most effective statistical analysis tools for assisting local crime-fighting efforts are the FBI’s UCR system and Bureau of Justice Statistics’ NCVS, both of which are described above. The systems share a shortcoming: Local jurisdictions disagree on what constitutes a crime. Some jurisdictions only report offenses that involve incarceration, while others include fined infractions.
Criminologists have developed a range of statistics-based tools that support federal, state, and local law enforcement agencies.
Other organizations involved in the collection, analysis, and dissemination of information about police activities include the Center for Policing Equity’s COMSTAT for Justice , which is intended to identify bias in policing, and the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights , whose 2019 report titled “Police Use of Force: An Examination of Modern Policing Practices” recommended that more data on the use of force by police be made available to law enforcement agencies, and that police be trained in de-escalation techniques, cultural differences, and anti-bias mechanisms.
Many of the statistics used and shared by the DOJ and the U.S. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention are compiled by the U.S. Census Bureau .
Other sources of information on the impact of criminology research in law enforcement include the Historical Violence Database maintained by Ohio State University Criminal Justice Research Center, the University of Michigan’s National Archive of Criminal Justice Data , the National Criminal Justice Reference Service , and the University at Albany’s Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics .
The work of criminologists touches nearly all aspects of social life. Crime investigation calls for specialized skills and training, sophisticated number-crunching ability, and a great deal of fieldwork interacting with colleagues within and outside criminal justice, and with the public.
Infographic Sources
The Balance Careers, “What Does a Criminologist Do?”
PayScale, “Average Criminologist Salary”
PayScale, “Average FBI Agent Salary”
PayScale, “Average Forensic Scientist Salary”
PayScale, “Average Police Detective Salary”
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Occupational Employment Statistics, “Detectives and Criminal Investigators”
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Occupational Outlook Handbook, “Forensic Science Technicians”
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Occupational Outlook Handbook, “Police and Detectives”
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Occupational Outlook Handbook, “Sociologists”
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Nadine M. Connell
What is criminology.
Welcome to the study of criminology and criminal justice. Have you stopped and wondered what actually is criminology? If you’re like most of us in this discipline, someone has already asked you a question about your study or your work and probably made some wild assumptions along the way. For instance, if you tell people that you are studying criminology, do they automatically assume that you must be collecting evidence? Or interviewing individuals who may have committed crimes? And if they have watched too many movies, they may think you are going to be an undercover spy who will lure international criminals to their demise. Overall, a very busy day!
If you are not exactly sure what criminology is, you are not alone. Criminology as we know it today in a university setting is a relatively new discipline compared to many other well-established branches of social sciences, like philosophy or sociology. But the search to understand why individuals commit anti-social and criminal behaviour has been going on for as long as humans have been around. After all, every version of society has had people in it who did not follow the rules. Of course, the reasons why people did not follow the rules were thought to be quite different for most of history and often related to the possibility that someone was possessed by a demon. That thinking has long since changed.
Criminology as we know and study it today can be traced back to the late 18th century (the 1700s) when societies, especially in Europe, slowly began to rethink their beliefs about the nature of humans. In particular, the Age of Enlightenment, or the Age of Reason, brought with it new ideas about the nature of humanity. In particular, we see scholars begin to believe that humans make decisions based on rationality and they begin to promote the use of the scientific method to understand the world around us. These advancements were happening in many different scholarly fields and the study of human behaviour was only one discipline to benefit. Taken together, this was the catalyst to the world of criminology we know today.
The most enduring definition of criminology is one that was first described by the sociologist Professor Edwin Sutherland. Professor Sutherland defined criminology as the comprehensive study of law-making, law-breaking and law-enforcing mechanisms (Sutherland et al., 1992). This definition is an incredibly useful one as we look to explain not only individual behaviour but also how the criminal justice system (e.g., laws, policies, and government) controls individual behaviour. After all, as we will discuss throughout this book, whether or not something is a crime is related to whether or not the people in charge think it is a crime. It also recognises the inherent interdisciplinarity in criminology. Much of what we know is also connected to philosophy, law, sociology, psychology and political science, just to name a few disciplines! In fact, many of the professors who teach you may have degrees in related fields because they studied crime from a sociological or a psychological context. That is one of the reasons that criminology studies so many different aspects of behaviour.
Can you think of behaviours that are dangerous or perhaps immoral, but not criminal? What about behaviours that are criminal but do not create harm for others? Many things that used to be illegal in our lifetime are now legal and celebrated. A very good example of this is same-sex marriage. Australia did not legalise same sex marriage until December 2017! Another good example is the way that our society has changed our understanding about the dangers of family violence. Traditionally, violence in the home was not considered anyone’s business and was not always illegal in all places (Please note that family violence is still legal in some countries but thankfully Australia is not one. That doesn’t mean that we don’t have more work to do though!). Now, we understand the damage that domestic and family violence does to families, children, and society. The decision to criminalise certain acts, therefore, is always a political one.
Because of that, criminologists will often refer to anti-social or deviant behaviour when talking about crime. Crime is codified by law but anti-social behaviour and deviance encompass a wide range of behaviours that are still of interest to the study of crime. Many of these other behaviours are also committed by people who break the law. A good example of this is childhood bullying. Bullying in school is not against the law. But we do know that young people who bully their classmates are more likely to grow up to commit crimes, so it is an important early behaviour to pay attention to (Piquero et al., 2013).
What does the study of law-making, law-breaking and law enforcement look like? Our goal as criminologists is to objectively study the nature, extent, causes and control of anti-social and deviant behaviours (Snipes et al., 2019). We investigate both the behaviours themselves and the societal responses to them, at both the individual and the institutional levels. Central to that is our definition of crime, which influences the way that we attempt to explain criminal behaviour. In Chapter 2, you will have the opportunity to think more critical about crime and how it is defined, but for now, we will use a very basic dictionary definition. Crime is an act deemed socially harmful or dangerous, that is specifically defined, prohibited and punished under criminal law.
The definition of crime is important because different criminological theories will attempt to explain different kinds of criminal behaviour, although we will soon learn that the more types of behaviour a theory can explain, the better.
What does it mean to be objective? Traditionally, this has meant the application of the scientific method in order to observe the world and make sense of our observations. You may remember talking about the scientific method in some of your classes in primary and high school. Figure 1.1 shows a simplified example. Our goal, by using the scientific method, is to make statements about the relationships between observable phenomena. Our statements should be as free from bias as possible, although it is very important to remember that all of us have some inherent bias that will affect our interpretations of our observations. These statements become theories (Babbie, 1989). That is why it is very important to be willing to reflect on our work, be critical of our ideas and welcome other people to offer a fresh perspective.
We use the scientific method to collect observations called data (Hartley, 2011). We then try to come up with explanations for why we see the things that we see. After we develop these theories, we test them using empirical) method. By constantly repeating this process, we can begin to identify patterns in behaviour. From these observations we can begin to ask questions about why things happen. Theories are statements about the relationships between these observations (Babbie, 1989; Stinchcombe, 1968). These questions become hypotheses, which are testable. We collect more data to test these hypotheses, generally in a very organised and systematic process, and sometimes we will have to refine or reject our hypotheses. We use these outcomes to develop our general theories of behaviour. And then we start all over again.
We can technically start this process at either the top or the bottom of the cycle. When we start with our observations and use them to create a theory about the world, we are undergoing an inductive process. When we start with a theory and collect observations to test our theory, we are undergoing a deductive process. You will learn more about this in your research methods classes but what is important to know is that both ways are legitimate ways to create theories of human behaviour.
One important question that comes up a lot is how a theory is different than common sense. This is a very reasonable question. After all, common sense comes from observing the world around us. But one limitation of common sense is that it is limited by our own experiences, including where – and when – we live. One famous example is that of the black swan . In Europe, swans are white. But when Dutch explorer Willem de Vlamingh arrived in Australia in 1697, he encountered a black swan. Of course, to Australian First Nations’ peoples, it was common sense that a swan would be black! This is a silly example of how we only know what we know, so processes like empirical inquiry can help us expand our experiences into patterned observations that can then be generalised to other experiences.
Theories are, of course, only one way we know what we know. Throughout history there have been other ways that individuals and societies came to conclusions about the nature of life and humanity. These are the most common ways of knowing that are generally discussed:
This involves deferring to socially recognised experts for knowledge dissemination. These experts, often equipped with formal credentials, hold prominence in specific domains. There are also other ways that individuals can be considered experts. While Western society prioritises formal credentials, other societies prioritise an individual’s level of respect and standing in a community, which is usually given based on socially agreed upon qualities and actions. In working within the criminal justice system, it is essential to recognise that other types of expertise, like community-based expertise, which may not always align with conventional academic standards, are also incredibly valuable.
Mystical ways of knowing encompass intuitive, spiritual, or religious insights that guide our knowledge about what is “right.” Such traditions gave way to what was known as trial by battle in the Middle Ages, which eventually morphed into trial by ordeal (Gehring and Batista, 2017). Many of you will be familiar with the idea of trial by ordeal if you have heard of stories of trials for those accused of witchcraft or the atrocities of the Spanish Inquisition. Thankfully such approaches to punishment are no longer common and we determine innocence or guilt in much more reasonable ways today.
Many people use logic to come to conclusions about the world around us (Beccaria, 1963). Logic and rationality can be very useful tools to determine truth but are limited in that people do not always act in logical or rational ways. While logical frameworks provide valuable insights, we must acknowledge their limitations, as truth may transcend conventional logic in certain contexts.
This brings us back to where we started: a way of knowing based on observation and objectivity. The use of empirical observations can help us test our hypotheses and help us refine our understanding of the world. Over time, the consistent support for our hypotheses will give us more confidence that our theories are reasonable ways to explain the world.
Now that we have established a shared understanding of the definition of criminology and have some familiarity with the use of observation to help us develop theories, it is time to delve a little deeper into the anatomy of a theory. Understanding the components of theories is crucial for both critiquing existing theories and understanding their contextual significance. Every theory comprises two essential elements: articulated propositions and unarticulated propositions. These components collectively form the foundation of a theory’s structure and implications (Gouldner, 1970).
An articulated proposition is a formally expressed statement that describes the relationships that link variables that make up a theoretical explanation. These statements describe the causal mechanisms underlying the phenomenon of study. For example, in Chapter 5 you will learn more about strain theories, which have articulated propositions that explain the relationship between societal goals and the occurrence of deviant behaviour. Importantly, these propositions are expected to align with observed reality, providing a basis for continued testing.
Contrary to their articulated counterparts, unarticulated propositions represent implicit beliefs and assumptions that are inherent to a theory. These assumptions, usually reflecting the perspective of the theorist, encompass broader notions about human behaviour and societal dynamics. Unarticulated propositions often influence a theory’s policy implications and practical applications. For instance, implicit beliefs about the nature of criminality may shape recommendations for crime prevention or rehabilitation strategies. If we think people can change, we may implement a different set of programs than if we think that people cannot improve.
A theory serves four primary goals: explanation, prediction, summarisation, and utility.
There are several different lists of criteria that exist to help us determine if we have a good theory. We will use the criteria from the well-respected criminologist Professor Ronald Akers [1] (1994). You will learn more about his work in Chapter 10. According to Professor Akers, a good theory should be:
There are several different ways that we can classify theories in criminology. These are very useful distinctions as we try to understand which theories are able to explain behaviour in which circumstances. Society is complex and while we strive for the most parsimonious explanation of social behaviour, those explanations also come from a place of our own understanding of the world. The most common ways to classify a theory are:
Level of analysis, underlying assumptions.
Theories can be classified based on their underlying assumptions about social order. There are three main paradigms that criminologists use.
Consensus Paradigm
The consensus paradigm posits that society functions harmoniously and that there is general agreement on what is – and what is not – acceptable. In this type of worldview, criminal behaviour serves a functional role because it reinforces the agreed upon social norms of behaviour. One example of a consensus paradigm is classical strain theories, which you will learn more about in Chapter 5.
Conflict Paradigm
The conflict paradigm highlights societal divisions and power struggles. Conflict criminology is strongly rooted in the work of Karl Marx, who argues that crime arises from class conflicts. In the conflict paradigm, capitalism perpetuates inequality and then crime. There are several different types of conflict theories and you will learn about three of them in Chapter 14.
Symbolic Interactionism
Symbolic interactionism focuses on how social interactions shape individual behaviour. Crime is perceived as a violation of social norms. One example of a symbolic interactionist theory is labelling theory, which highlights how societal reactions to deviance can influence individuals’ self-concepts and future actions. You will learn more about these theories in Chapter 13.
Theories are often categorised into micro and macro levels of analysis:
Micro-Level Theories
Micro-level theories examine individual processes contributing to criminal behaviour.
Macro-Level Theories
Macro-level theories focus on broader societal factors influencing crime rates. These theories are often considered social or institutional level theories.
The underlying assumptions of a theory encompass our perspectives on social order and beliefs about human nature:
Normative vs. Relativistic Definitions
One thing that a theory relies on is an underlying assumption or belief about social order (Lemert, 1981). After all, if you are going to explain why people commit anti-social behaviours, you also have to explain why those behaviours are considered anti-social to begin with. Normative assumptions suggest a shared consensus on morality, where everyone agrees upon what is moral and right. Relativistic assumptions argue that morality is contingent upon power dynamics. For example, consensus theories assume a shared understanding of right and wrong, while conflict theories acknowledge power differentials in defining morality.
Assumptions about Human Nature
Theories vary in their beliefs about human nature, influencing the ways in which they propose to interpret of criminal behaviour. One of the defining debates in criminology is whether “nature or nurture” causes individuals to commit crime. There are three main assumptions that criminological theories can make about human nature. The first is that human being are inherently good and have to be pushed to commit crimes. The second is that human beings are inherently bad, or at least out to maximise their own pleasure, and have to be deterred or stopped from committing crime. The third possible assumption about human nature is known as the tabula rasa argument, or that everyone is born as a blank slate. Through the process of living and learning, we have different ideas imprinted into our personality. As you read through the different chapters in this textbook, I encourage you to see if you can determine what assumption of human nature each theory starts with.
At this point, you may be asking yourself what all of these things have to do with the reality of working in the criminal justice system. It is a very fair question. Many of the concepts in this chapter are, after all, a little bit vague and do not seem to have immediate importance for the day to day work of criminal justice agencies. But remember what we said earlier in this chapter: good theory helps create good policy (Paternoster and Bachman, 2001). How does this work?
As we use the scientific method to observe reality to help us create testable hypotheses that explain the reasons that humans act the way that they do, we refine our understanding of the world and create the building blocks of evidence that will help us determine what policies are most likely to be effective in reducing crime. The process of collecting this evidence and reporting it back to society to help create better policy is called translational research (Blomberg et al., 2024). Every discipline has some version of translational research. You encounter translational research every day. Whether it be a public health message to wash your hands (for 20 seconds!) or a reminder to wear your seatbelt, most government policy has its origins in a research recommendation.
Because this evidence is so important for society at large, we have a responsibility to take the way that we investigate this claims very seriously. Criminologist Professor Robert Sampson said it best: “Data never “speak for themselves”—making sense of causal patterns requires theoretical claims about unobserved mechanisms and social processes no matter what the experiment or statistical method employed” (Sampson, 2010, p. 491, italics in original). Collecting data and making observations is only one part of the process. It is up to us to make sense of those observations so that we can inform meaningful change.
A good example of when this backfires is example of school violence (Blomberg et al., 2024). We know that school violence can be improved by improving school climate, helping students create strong friendships, and incorporating successful bullying prevention programs (Connell et al., 2013; Connell et al., 2014; Schell-Busey et al., 2023; Turanovic and Siennick, 2022). However, schools in many juridsictions insist on implementing zero-tolerance policies and adding more police officers to schools (Han and Connell, 2021; Turnanovic et al., 2022). This is why we need strong theory to guide strong policy; translational research is the way to get there.
At this point in time, you may feel a little overwhelmed. But don’t worry; soon this will all become very clear. In the coming chapters, you will learn about the different theoretical frameworks that criminologists use to explain all sorts of deviant, anti-social and criminal behaviour. What is important now is that you understand that the process of creating, testing and refining a theory of human behaviour is not a random one. And beyond that, there are a lot of underlying assumptions that we bring to the conversation, even if we are trying to be objective. Objectivity is incredibly difficult and what is more important is to articulate and be honest about the assumptions that are inherent in the theories and thought processes that we are going through.
Criminology has many theoretical explanations of behaviour. As you read through the following chapters, think about which ones most resonate with you and why. What are the assumptions that you have about society and humanity that drive your opinions about which theories make the most sense to you? By the end of this course, we hope that you have a firm understanding of the different explanations of criminal and deviant behaviour, are able to examine these explanations with a critical eye and feel comfortable about the different ways that good theory can begin to inform good policy. Because at the end of the day, our goal is to create good policy that helps keep people and societies safe and well supported.
Discussion questions.
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[1] For more information about Professor Ronald Akers, check out this interview with Professor Gary Jenson for the Oral History Project of the American Society of Criminology .
Introduction to Criminology and Criminal Justice Copyright © 2024 by Nadine M. Connell is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.
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Criminal behavior ; Social factors and crime ; The psychology of crime
Criminology is an interdisciplinary field of study that focuses on crime and the responses to crime.
As the study of crime and society’s responses to it, criminology is an interdisciplinary field that brings together scholars, clinicians, and other professionals from all types of disciplines to seek an understanding of some of the behaviors that have deep and broad consequences for society. How has crime been studied in the past? How has it been conceptualized by different societies? Why are there inappropriate (i.e., criminal and illegitimate) codes of conduct in all societies where documentation exists? These are some of the questions we will pursue in this entry. First, we will describe what has been studied under the umbrella term “criminology,” giving us an appreciation of the history of the field. Then, we will explore some of the more prominent theories in criminology from...
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Brazil, K.J., Whittingham, L.M. (2019). Criminology. In: Shackelford, T., Weekes-Shackelford, V. (eds) Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Psychological Science. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-16999-6_3193-1
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criminology , scientific study of the nonlegal aspects of crime and delinquency , including its causes, correction, and prevention, from the viewpoints of such diverse disciplines as anthropology , biology, psychology and psychiatry , economics , sociology , and statistics.
Viewed from a legal perspective, the term crime refers to individual criminal actions (e.g., a burglary ) and the societal response to those actions (e.g., a sentence of three years in prison ). By comparison, the field of criminology incorporates and examines broader knowledge about crime and criminals. For example, criminologists have attempted to understand why some people are more or less likely to engage in criminal or delinquent behaviour. Criminologists have also examined and attempted to explain differences in crime rates and the criminal code between societies and changes in rates and laws over time.
Many criminologists consider themselves to be neutral public policy experts, gathering facts for various governmental officials responsible for drawing policy conclusions. However, some criminologists—like their counterparts in such fields as the atomic and nuclear sciences—maintain that scientists must shoulder responsibility for the moral and political consequences of their research. Thus, some criminologists have actively campaigned against capital punishment and have advocated in favour of various legal reforms. Criminologists who oppose this activist role contend that the findings of criminological research must be weighed along with political, social, religious, and moral arguments, a task best left to political bodies. Not denying the right of criminologists to express their opinions as ordinary citizens and voters, this view nonetheless maintains that a government by popular will is less dangerous than a government by experts.
In the last decades of the 20th century, criminology grew to encompass a number of specialized study areas. One of these was criminalistics, or scientific crime detection, which involves such measures as photography, toxicology , fingerprint study, and DNA evidence ( see also DNA fingerprinting ). It had previously been excluded from criminology because of its focus on particular criminal actions rather than on the broader knowledge about crime and criminals. Criminology further expanded its reach by devoting significant attention to victimology , or the study of the victims of crime, the relationships between victims and criminals, and the role of victims in the criminal events themselves. Criminal justice has also emerged as a separate but closely related academic field, focusing on the structure and functioning of criminal justice agencies—including the police , courts , corrections, and juvenile agencies—rather than on explanations of crime. ( See juvenile justice .)
The relationship of criminology to various other disciplines has resulted in considerable diversity in its academic placement within universities. Universities in Europe have tended to treat criminology as part of legal education , even in circumstances where its principal teachers were not lawyers. In the United Kingdom, for example, the Institute of Criminology is part of the law faculty of the University of Cambridge; in other schools criminological research and teaching have usually been divided between departments of sociology or social administration, law faculties, and institutes of psychiatry. In South America the anthropological and medical elements predominate, and in the United States , though there has been a trend toward housing criminology and criminal justice in separate multidisciplinary departments, criminology has most often been situated in departments of sociology.
Criminology developed in the late 18th century, when various movements, imbued with humanitarianism , questioned the cruelty, arbitrariness, and inefficiency of the criminal justice and prison systems. During this period reformers such as Cesare Beccaria in Italy and Sir Samuel Romilly , John Howard , and Jeremy Bentham in England, all representing the so-called classical school of criminology, sought penological and legal reform rather than criminological knowledge. Their principal aims were to mitigate legal penalties, to compel judges to observe the principle of nulla poena sine lege (Latin: “ due process of law”), to reduce the application of capital punishment, and to humanize penal institutions. They were moderately successful, but, in their desire to make criminal justice more “just,” they tried to construct rather abstract and artificial equations between crimes and penalties, ignoring the personal characteristics and needs of the individual criminal defendant. Moreover, the object of punishment was primarily retribution and secondarily deterrence , with reformation lagging far behind.
In the early 19th century the first annual national crime statistics were published in France. Adolphe Quetelet (1796–1874), a Belgian mathematician, statistician, and sociologist who was among the first to analyze these statistics, found considerable regularity in them (e.g., in the number of people accused of crimes each year, the number convicted, the ratio of men to women, and the distribution of offenders by age). From these patterns he concluded that “there must be an order to those things which…are reproduced with astonishing constancy, and always in the same way.” Later, Quetelet argued that criminal behaviour was the result of society’s structure, maintaining that society “prepares the crime, and the guilty are only the instruments by which it is executed.”
Whereas Quetelet focused on the characteristics of societies and attempted to explain their resulting crime rates, the Italian medical doctor Cesare Lombroso (1836–1909) studied individual criminals in order to determine why they committed crimes. Some of his investigations led him to conclude that people with certain cranial, skeletal, and neurological malformations were “born criminal” because they were biological throwbacks to an earlier evolutionary stage. Highly controversial at the time he presented it, his theory was ultimately rejected by social scientists. Lombroso also contended that there were multiple causes of crime and that most offenders were not born criminal but instead were shaped by their environment . The research of both Quetelet and Lombroso emphasized the search for the causes of crime—a focus that criminology has retained.
1st Edition
This book provides a guide for undergraduate criminology and criminal justice students undertaking their final-year dissertation. It speaks to the specific challenges for criminology students who may wish to research closed institutions (such as prisons, courts, or the police) or vulnerable populations (such as people with convictions, victims of crime, or young people), and offers guidance on how to undertake research on these topics whilet avoiding many of the access and ethical obstacles. It takes students through each phase of the dissertation, from designing and planning the research to writing up and presenting the completed work. The complexities of undertaking research on sensitive topics and with criminal justice institutions are discussed throughout, offering an insight into some of the challenges that students may be faced with and suggestions to overcome obstacles. It offers practical guidance for empirical and library-based projects and provides students with suggested resources for accessing primary and secondary data. It utilises a mixture of worked examples, top tips, practical strategies, and student activities to ensure the dissertation is a manageable and enjoyable process. This book will be beneficial to all undergraduate criminology students who have to undertake either a library-based or empirical dissertation. The examples and activities in the book will also be useful for dissertation supervisors who can use them to support their dissertation students.
Suzanne Young is an Associate Professor in Criminal Justice at the School of Law, University of Leeds, UK.
" How to Write Your Undergraduate Dissertation in Criminology offers the essential guide to producing your dissertation. From the literature review to the methodology chapter, from finding data to finding your voice, it guides you step by step through the process using examples specific to criminology. As such, it gives you the best chance of excelling in your dissertation." Dr David Churchill , Associate Professor in Criminal Justice, University of Leeds " How to Write Your Undergraduate Dissertation in Criminology provides a helpful step by step guide to undertaking undergraduate research, complemented by a range of activities to encourage students to think about their dissertation research and writing in a manageable way. This text is also an excellent resource to support teaching and learning on dissertation modules with activities that academic staff can use in their teaching practice." Dr Helen Nichols , Associate Professor in Criminology, University of Lincoln "Academic writing is challenging, especially for students faced with writing a dissertation. What is needed is a practical, supportive, and user-friendly guide addressing all stages of the process from selecting a viable topic to producing a final edit. This is that guide. Authored by a leading expert in teaching and learning in criminology, all students will benefit from reading it and putting the advice into action." Professor Gavin Dingwall , Professor of Criminal Justice Policy, De Montfort University " How to Write Your Undergraduate Dissertation in Criminology will provide students with necessary skills and help them to work with their supervisors to plan and execute a research project. The book is well structured and covers everything students need to know to complete their dissertation. The design of the book is very engaging and encourages students to interact with the content through a series of exercises. As such, it provides an excellent learning resource." Debbie Jones , Associate Professor in Criminology, Swansea University "This is an excellent, supportive, and engaging book for students embarking on their undergraduate dissertation in criminology. With activities and diagrams to guide decision-making, the book breaks down what can be a daunting task into a manageable – and even enjoyable – process. The practical takeaways make this an essential read for students navigating the dissertation journey." Dr Christine Haddow , Lecturer in Criminology, Edinburgh Napier University
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Theses/dissertations from 2024 2024.
CARE TO CRIMINALIZATION: HOW ADULTS WITH LIVED CROSSOVER KID EXPERIENCE PERCIEVE THEIR EXPERIENCES IN THE CHILD PROTECTION SYSTEM AND THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM , Clarissa Kurzawski
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An Analysis of Collective Efficacy as a Predictor of Gun Violence in Toronto , Carly Richards
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Constructions of Sympathy: A Media Discourse Analysis of Detained Children and Youth in Canada , Lauren Ashby
THROUGH THE LURKING GLASS: A QUALITATIVE MEDIA ANALYSIS OF TRADITIONAL GENDER NORMS AND STALKING DEPICTIONS IN FILM , Alexandra Baril
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Using Social Disorganization Theory to Explore Neighbourhood Effects on Violent Crime: A Case Study of the City of Brantford, Ontario , Ni-Shan Ho
Exploring the Pluralization of Community Safety: A Qualitative Analysis of the Perceived Operation and Implications of Situation Tables , Taylor Knipe
Correctional Officers "Through the Looking Glass": Understanding Perceptions and their Impact on Personal and Professional Identity , Emma Mistry
Meeting the Needs of Victims: An Examination of Victims' Coping Strategies and Victim Services in Canada , Jenniffer Olenewa
BASED ON ACTUAL EVENTS: Surveillance, Fear and Crime Control in Found-Footage Horror Films , Cassandra Persaud
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Exploring Police Officers' Perceptions of Mobile Crisis Rapid Response Teams Within a Nodal Policing Framework , Trevor Viersen
You Will Be Punished: Media Depictions of Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women , Caitlin Elliott
Pregnancy, birth, and mothering behind bars: A case study of one woman's journey through the Ontario criminal justice and jail systems , Sarah Fiander
Policing and the Dirty Underbelly: Understanding Narratives of Police Deviance on Social Media Platforms , Amanda Lancia
REPRESENTATIONS OF STRANGER AND NON-STRANGER HOMICIDE: A QUALITATIVE CONTENT ANALYSIS OF CANADIAN NEWS MEDIA , Gabriella L. Leone
Twerking, Alcohol, and Fame: The Construction of Disney Celebrities in the Media , Carla R. López
Investigative Inadequacies or Investigative Corruption? Exploring the Role of Police Misconduct within Canadian Wrongful Conviction Cases , Michelle L. Lovegrove
No More Mind Games: Content Analysis of In-Game Commentary of the National Football League’s Concussion Problem , Jeffrey Parker
Critical Champions or Careless Condemners? Exploring News Media Constructions in Cases of Wrongful Conviction , Katherine Rozad
Exploring Interactions Between Police and People with Mental Illness , Krystle L. Shore Ms.
Police on Camera: The Impact of Watching User-Generated Police Videos on Students’ Attitudes towards the Police , Daniel N. Smith
Hunting for 'Paper Gangsters': An Institutional Analysis of Intelligence-led Policing in a Canadian Context , Crystal Weston
Fight the Dead, Fear the Living: Post-Apocalyptic Narratives of Fear, Governance and Social Control , Samantha Lynn Kolpin
A Side of Justice Rarely Seen: Professional Perspectives Toward Youth Justice and Sentencing Procedures in the Exploratory Context of Canada and Russia , Serge Lokshin M.A.
PRO-ANOREXIA/BULIMIA INTERACTIONS ONLINE: PROBLEMATIZING COMPLEX CULTURAL PHENOMENA , Nicole D. Schott
Policing Diversity with Diversity: Exploring Organizational Rhetoric, Myth, and Minority Police Officers' Perceptions and Experiences , Justin K. Szeto
Juror Perceptions of Eyewitness Identification Evidence , Timothy G. Wykes
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About the university, research at cambridge.
We are pleased to post a selection of theses which have been given marks of distinction. Please note that it is not always possible to post theses of a confidential nature or if they include sensitive data. In some instances, sensitive data may have been removed.
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Author | Year | Title | Download |
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Anonymous by request | 2009 | Procedural Justice and Police Legitimacy: An examination of the process-based model in understanding what influences suspect perceptions | |
Nall, A | 2017 | The Identification & Ranking of Organised Crime Groups and Members: Combining the Crime Harm Index (CHI) and Social Network Analysis (SNA) | |
Antoine, B | 2016 | The Rise and Fall of Hotspots of Homicide in the Port-of-Spain Division: changes over time in characteristics of murder | |
Bardsley, G | 2021 | Can Crime and Detections be counted differently: Demonstrating the Cambridge Consensus Statement for Counting Crime and Detections in Devon & Cornwall | |
Barnham, L | 2016 | Targeting Perpetrators of Partner Abuse in Thames valley: a two year follow up of crime harm escalation | |
Beutgen, A | 2019 | Swedish police officers’ views of selected evidence-based policing research findings | |
Bitters, F | 2021 | Children on Child Protection Plans: Are the Police Missing Opportunities to Intervene Earlier and Failing to Prevent Future Harm? | |
Bland, M | 2014 | Targetting Escalation in Common Domestic Abuse: How Much if Any? | |
Bolduc, M | 2024 | Are Police Agencies in Quebec, Canada, Ready to Integrate Actuarial Forecasting Models? An Exploratory Study About the Suspects’ Releasing Decision-Making Process of Sûreté du Quebec Officers | |
Bradley, K | 2024 | Do Trauma-Informed Investigation Teams in One Hospital Increase Detection, Reduce Repeat Victimisation, and Reduce Recidivism: A Comparative Study | |
Calder, S | 2024 | Serious Further Offence Reviews: Understanding the Perceptions of Probation Practitioners and Decision-Makers | |
Carden, R | 2012 | Car Key Burglaries: An Exploratory Analysis | |
Chalkley, R. | 2015 | Predicting serious domestic assaults and murder in Dorset | |
Chilton, S. | 2011 | Randomised Controlled Trial using Conditional Cautioning as a response to Domestic Abuse | |
Clark, B | 2021 | Reassurance Contacts by Local Police Officers with Victims of Vehicle Crime and Cycle Theft: A Block Randomised Control Trial | |
Clark, D | 2015 | Tracking the victims of Boiler-room Fraud – Citizens at risk! | |
Cornelius, N | 2015 | Perceptions of domestic abuse victims to police disposals post-arrest by conditional caution, simple caution or no further action | |
Cowan, D | 2018 | What is the context of police and court diversion in Victoria and what opportunities exist for increasing police diversion of offenders? | |
De Brito, C | 2016 | Will Providing Tracking Feedback on Hot Spot Patrols Affect the Amount of Patrol Dosage Delivered? | |
Donohoe, C | 2024 | Identifying children at risk of committing serious violence | |
Drover, P | 2014 | Leading and Testing Body worn Video in Wolverhampton | |
Etheridge, P | 2015 | An Exploratory Study of the Application of the Cambridge Harm Index (CHI) to Crime Data in South Yorkshire | |
Foster, J | 2020 | 'An Exploratory Study of How Practitioners in UK Fire and Rescue Services Working with Children and Young People Who Set Fires Identify Clients Requiring Psychosocial Interventions' | |
Giles, E | 2020 | Resettlement: a postcode lottery? An exploratory study of the geographical and socioeconomic factors impacting desistance from crime | |
Gordon, J | 2022 | Targeting High-Harm Victim-Offenders for Offender Management to Reduce Harm: A BCU-Level Analysis | |
Hale, J | 2024 | Tracking Crime Harm by Phone Numbers of Customers of Drug Dealers: Analysing Changes from Before to After Arrest of Drug Dealers | |
Hallworth, J | 2016 | 'County Lines': and Exploratory analysis of migrating drug gang offenders in North Essex | |
Henstock, D | 2015 | Testing the effects of body-born video on police use of force during arrest: a randomised controlled trial | |
Hobday, J | 2014 | TARGETING REASONS FOR REJECTING RANDOM ASSIGNMENT IN AN RCT | |
Hodgkinson, W | 2021 | Comparing Two Different Alarm Systems for High-Risk Domestic Abuse Victims: A Randomised Controlled Trial | |
Jackson, M | 2010 | Murder Concentration and Distribution Patterns in London An Exploratory Analysis of Ten Years of Data | |
Jackman, R | 2015 | Measuring harm in a cohort of sex offenders in Norfolk | |
Jarman, R. | 2012 | Could conditional cautions be used as a suitable intervention for certain cases | |
Jones, A. | 2016 | Tracking Investigative Outcomes of Sexual offences in British Transport Police by the Medium of reporting | |
Keating, R | 2022 | Managing High-Risk Suspects In Custody: A Legal and Operational Analysis | |
Knight, C | 2022 | Mapping public place reported crime and harm against women and girls | |
Kruger, S | 2023 | Exploring Persistence and Barriers to Desistance for Young Offenders in Isiolo, Kenya | |
Langley, B. | 2013 | A randomised control trial comparing the effects of procedural justice to experienced utility theories in airport security stops | |
Lawes, D. | 2014 | Targeting Traffic Enforcement with a Collision Harm Index: A Descriptive Study in the City Of London | |
Lay, W | 2021 | Reducing Repeat Harm: Forecasting high-harm victims for prevention and protection | |
Leggetter, M | 2021 | Implementing a Hot Spot Targeting Alarm System A Participant Observation Case Study | |
Lekare, A | 2024 | Exploring common risk factors associated with shootings with lethal outcomes in street gang milieus in Sweden | |
Macbeth, E. | 2015 | Evidence-Based vs Experience-Based Targeting of Crime and Harm Hotspots in Northern Ireland | |
McAuliffe, K | 2024 | 'Frequency and Harm: An Exploratory Analysis of Missing Children' | |
McDonagh, R | 2022 | The changing profile of Modern Slavery crime: Tracking outcomes in Investigations by the Metropolitan Police 2016 – 2021 | |
McKee, J. | 2021 | Testing the effects of delivering procedural justice by reassurance telephone calls to victims of screened out vehicle crime: evidence from a randomised controlled trial | |
Nethercott, C. | 2020 | ‘Life on the Book’ (The lived experience of the high-risk, category A prisoner) | |
Olphin, T. | 2014 | Solving Violent Crime: Targeting Factors that Predict Clearance of Non-Domestic Violent Offences | |
Ottaro, P | 2024 | Targeting Hot Spots and Harm Spots in a Mass Transit System in Canada: A Tale of the City of Edmonton | |
Paine, C. | 2012 | Solvability Factors in Dwelling Burglaries in Thames Valley | |
Parkinson, J. | 2012 | Managing Police Performance in England and Wales: Intended and Unintended Consequences | |
Platz, D. | 2016 | The Impact of a value education programme in a police recruit training academy: a randomised trial. | |
Pugh, M | 2022 | Criminal Records of Persons Stopped and Searched on Suspicion of Drug Crimes: A Racial Disparity Analysis | |
Ralph, M | 2022 | Tracking Stalking for High Harm Outcomes: A 365-Day Follow-up Analysis | |
Routledge , G | 2015 | A Protocol and Phase I Experimental Trial: The Checkpoint Desistance Programme in Durham | |
Ross, N | 2022 | A descriptive study of harm levels among registered sex offenders over four years following conviction | |
Rowland, J | 2012 | What happens after arrest for Domestic Abuse: A Prospective Longitudinal Analysis of over 2,200 Cases | |
Rowlinson, T | 2015 | An An Observational Process Study of a Short Programme for lower-risk Domestic Abuse Offenders under Conditional Caution in the Hampshire CARA Experiment | |
Scott, C | 2015 | Patterns and Concentrations of Risk in Reported Police Pursuit Incidents in New Zealand | |
Seif, J | 2022 | The Effects of a Cadet Training Component on Police Attitudes: A Randomized Controlled Trial | |
Sharp, S | 2016 | Pickpocketing on The Railway: Targeting solvable cases | |
Sloan, A | 2020 | The pursuit of cohesion: An exploratory study of the values of, and relationship between, Heads of Security and Heads of Safety in prisons | |
Smith, C | 2016 | A Case Control Analysis of Offenders Issued with Domestic Violence Protective Orders (DVPOs) in Hertfordshire | |
Stephens, R | 2024 | A study using Situation Action Theory (SAT) to explore prisoner violence in High Security Prisons | |
Stevens, I | 2024 | Exploring the concept of 'the Third Place' in prison | |
Thompson, I | 2016 | The Impact of Procedural Justice Training on First Year Constables' Interactions with Citizens: an RCT | |
Thornton, S | 2011 | Predicting Serious Domestic Assaults and Murder in the Thames Valley | |
Urwin, S | 2016 | Algorithmic Forecasting of Offender Dangerousness for Police Custody Officers | |
Vo, Quoc Thanh | 2015 | 6000 Cases of Missing and Absent Persons: Patterns of Crime Harm and Priorities for Resource Allocation | |
Weems, J | 2013 | Testing PCSO Cocooning of Near Repeat Burglary Locations | |
Whinney, A | 2015 | A descriptive analysis of Multi-Agency Risk Assessment Conferences (MARACs) for reducing the future harm of domestic abuse in Suffolk | |
Whiting, M | 2014 | Police Organisational Cultures and Inter-force Collaboration | |
Williams, S | 2015 | Do visits or time spent in hot spots patrol matter most? A randomised controlled trial in West Midland Police | |
Wright, M | 2021 | Tracking the Accuracy of Assessing High Risk Offenders for Intimate Partner Violence: A Ten-Year Analysis | |
Young, J | 2014 | Implementation of a Randomized Controlled Trial in Ventura, California- A Body-Worn Video Camera Experiment | |
Zimmermann, B | 2011 | Educational Level of Law Enforcement Officers and Frequency of Citizen Complaints: A Systematic Review |
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Our PhD alumni study crime, order and security from a variety of disciplinary perspectives and theoretical approaches. Use the list below to expore the range of areas our doctoral students have explored over the years.
Where available, theses are linked to TSpace , the University of Toronto's research repository, or else to the UofT Libraries Catalogue.
Giancarlo Fiorella, 2023 (Supv. Professor Beatrice Jauregui): Spectralities at the Protest Chronotope: Venezuela’s Colectivos and the Opposition Social Imaginary
Serdar San, 2023 (Supv. Professor Matthew Light): Policing and Police Reform in Turkey since 1980: Regime Transitions and Policing Transformations
Fernando Ramon Avila, 2023 (Supv. Professor Kelly Hannah-Moffat): "The Scars Remain." Power, Solidarity, and Punishment in an Atypical Latin American Prison
Grant John Valentine, 2023 (Supv. Professor Paula Maurutto): The Canadian Punitive Paradox: The Evolution of Conservative Political Marketing Practices and the Late Onset of Penal Populism in Canadian Federal Politics
Jihyun Kwon, 2023 (Supv. Professor Audrey Macklin, Professor Kelly Hannah-Moffat): Misconduct Mismanagement: Independent Oversight, Accountability, and the Rule of Law
Erick Laming, 2022 (Supv. Professor Scot Wortley): Police Use of Force: Understanding its Impact on Indigenous and Black Community Members in Ontario
Dikla Yogev, 2022 (Supv. Professor Matthew Light): Religion and Police Legitimacy: the Case of Israel’s Haredi Community
Luis Valentin Pereda Aguado, 2021 (Supv. Professor Matthew Light): Processes of Violence in Mexico’s Organized Crime Groups: A Study of Los Zetas
Julius Haag, 2021 (Supv. Professor Scot Wortley): A Qualitative Examination of the Impacts of Police Practices on Racialized and Marginalized Young People in Toronto
Jacquie Briggs, 2021, (Supv. Professor Emerita Mariana Valverde): Networks of Colonial Governance: Department of Indian Affairs Legal Aid in Canada, 1870 to 1970
Grace Tran, 2021 (Supv. Professor Audrey Macklin, Professor Emerita Mariana Valverde): Laws of Love: Negotiations of Intimacy and Legitimacy At and Beyond State Borders Through Vietnamese “Marriage Fraud” Arrangements
Zachary Levinsky, 2020: 'Don't Under Reach': The Limits of Compassion and Risk Management in Toronto School Safety from 1999-2007
Adam Ellis, 2020: Reconceptualizing Urban Warfare In Canada: Exploring the Relationship Between Trauma, Post-traumatic Stress, and Violence Among Male Combat Soldiers and 'Street Soldiers'
Brenna Keatinge, 2018: Growing Land, Growing Law: Race, Urban Politics, and the Governance of Vacant Land in Boston from 1950
Katharina Maier, 2018: Half Way to Freedom: The Role of Halfway Houses in Canada's Penal Landscape
Lysandra Marshall, 2017: Racial Disparities in Police Stops in Kingston, Ontario: Democratic Racism and Canadian Racial Profiling in Theoretical Perspective
Maria Jung, 2017: The Relationship between Immigration and Crime in Canada: 1976-2011
Meghana Rao, 2017: Troubling Suicide: Law, Medicine and Hijr Suicides in India
Holly Pelvin, 2017: Doing Uncertain Time: Understanding the Experiences of Punishment in Pre-trial Custody
Vanessa Iafolla, 2015: Anti-money Laundering and Counter-terrorist Financing Policy in Canada: Origins, Implementation and Enforcement
Alexandra Lysova, 2015: Dynamics of Violence between Intimate Partners in the Narratives of Incarcerated Women in Canada: A Violent Events Perspective
Natasha Madon, 2015: Intersections of Youths'Perceptions: Youths' Perceptions of Their Treatment by the Criminal Justice System and Other Social Institutions
Tara Marie Watson, 2014: Risks Inside and Beyond Institutional Walls: Organisational Responses to Substance Use in Canadian Federal Prisons
Akwasi Owusu-Bempah, 2014: Black Males' Perceptions of and Experiences with the Police in Toronto
Nicole Myers, 2013: Creating Criminality: The Intensification of Institutional Risk Aversion Strategies and the Decline of the Bail Process
Rashmee Singh, 2012: Grassroots Governance: Domestic Violence and Criminal Justice Partnerships in an Immigrant City
Olena Kobzar, 2012: Networking on the Margins: The Regulation of Payday Lending in Canada
Sarah Turnbull, 2012: Reconfiguring Canadian Penality: Gender, Diversity and Parole
Allyson Lunny, 2011: Victimhood and Socio-legal Narratives of Hate Crime against Queer Communities in Canada, 1985-2003
Carolyn Greene, 2011: Creating Consensus: An Exploration of Two Pre-charge Diversion Programs in Canada
Anita Lam, 2011: Making Crime TV: Producing Fictional Representations of Crime for Canadian Television
Myles Leslie, 2011: Speaking for the Dead: Coroners, Institutional Structures and Risk Management
Prashan Ranasinghe, 2009: The Refashioning of Vagrancy and the (Re)Ordering of Public Space
Michael Mopas, 2009: Imagining the Internet and Making it Governable: Canadian Law and Regulation
Sara Thompson, 2009: The Social Ecology and Spatial Distribution of Lethal Violence in Toronto, 1988-2003
Randy Seepersad, 2009: Mediators and Moderators in the Relative Deprivation - Crime/Counter-normative Actions Relationship
Annmarie Barnes, 2007: Transnational Dislocations: The Use of Deportation as Crime Control
Dawn Moore, 2005: To Cure the Offender: Drugs, Users and the Canadian Criminal Justice System
Mary Lynn Young, 2005: Crime Content and Media Economics: Gendered Practices and Sensational Stories, 1950-2000
Carla Cesaroni, 2005: The Stress and Adjustment of Youth in Custody
Bryan Hogeveen, 2003: Can't You Be a Man? Rebuilding Wayward Masculinities and Regulating Juvenile Deviance in Ontario 1860-1930
Cheryl Webster, 2003: Working for 'Good Order and Discipline': The Impact of Mandatory Convict Labour on the Maintenance of Orderly Prison Life in Contemporary Portugal
John Deukmedjian, 2002: The Evolution and Alignment of RCMP Conflict Management and Organizational Surveillance
Phil Mun, 2002: Calculated Risk-taking: The Governance of Casino Gambling in Ontario
Renisa Mawani, 2001: The "Savage Indian" and the "Foreign Plague": Mapping Racial Categories and Legal Geographies of Race in British Columbia, 1871-1925
Kimberly-Jo White, 2001: Negotiating Responsibility: Representations of Criminality and Mind-State in Canadian Law, Medicine and Society, 1920-1950
Jennifer Wood, 2000: Reinventing Governance : A Study of Transformations in the Ontario Provincial Police
Kirsten Kramar, 2000: Unwilling Mothers and Unwanted Babies: 'Infanticide' and Medico-Legal Responsibility in 20th Century Canadian Legal Discourse
Kim Varma, 2000: Exploring Age and Maturity in Youth Justice
Stephane Leman-Langlois, 2000: Constructing Post-Conflict Justice: The South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission as an Ongoing Invention of Reconciliation and Truth
Anna Pratt, 2000: A Political Anatomy of Detention and Deportation in Canada
Voula Marinos, 2000: The Multiple Dimensions of Punishment: 'Intermediate' Sanctions and Interchangeability with Imprisonment
Jane Sprott 1999: Views of the Punishment of Youth: The Dimensions of Punitiveness
Benedikt Fischer, 1998: "Community policing" : a study of local policing, order and control
Kelly Hannah-Moffat, 1997: From Christian maternalism to risk technologies, penal powers and women's knowledges in the governance of female prisons
Willem De Lint, 1997: Shaping the subject of policing, autonomy, regulation and the police constable
Tammy Landau, 1994: Policing and security in four remote aboriginal communities: a challenge to coercive models of police work
Mitch macdonald successfully defends his phd thesis.
Graduate students
Congratulations to Mitch Macdonald on the successful defence of his PhD thesis "Folk theory in organized crime”.
A number of grand narratives characterize organized crime in popular culture. The most common of which is that criminal organizations “on paper” resemble the formal corporate hierarchy of large multinational corporations. Another is that criminal networks resemble intricate, messy webs of connections that consist of layers upon layers of different types of relationships. A third is the classic “rise and fall” narrative that describes the life-course trajectories of 1950s mobsters, many of whom came-of-age during the prohibition era. For each grand narrative, however, there is a counter-narrative. First, criminal organizations resemble informal criminal networks, not the formal corporate hierarchy of big business. Second, criminal networks, for the most part, consist of unidimensional relationships, and not different types of relations. Third, criminal trajectories in organized crime do not persist throughout the entire life-course, but only for a couple of decades.
The sharp contrast of the grand narratives in comparison to their counter-narratives leaves many questions. Is the formal hierarchy of the mafia independent of the informal criminal networks that emerge outside of it? Are criminal networks truly webs of different types of interdependent relationships, or more rudimentary in design, and what effect, if any, do those relations have on group behavior? Is there one uniform life-course persistent criminal trajectory in organized crime, or do different life-course narratives describe the criminal trajectories of different groups?
In this thesis, I test each of those three research questions. To do so, I use police records from historic criminal investigations into New York City’s mafia during the 1950s. The police files present unique insights into the formal hierarchy of the mafia and the informal criminal networks of hundreds of suspects; different types of criminal, social, and business relationships that represent different layers to their criminal networks; and the criminal histories of suspects provide insights into life-course narratives. Findings do not support the true-or-false dichotomy of grand narratives or the counter-narratives; rather, the grand narratives effectively characterize some cases, but do not generalize to every case. The main findings illustrate the differences in the structure of criminal organizations, differences in the depths of the relationships that connect criminal associates, and group differences in criminal trajectories.
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Theses/Dissertations from 2016. PDF. Disinhibition, Violence Exposure, and Delinquency: A Test of How Self-Control Affects the Impact of Exposure to Violence, Wyatt Brown. PDF. The Guilty But Mentally Ill Verdict: Assessing the Impact of Informing Jurors of Verdict Consequences, Erin Elizabeth Cotrone. PDF.
Criminology on Crimes Against Humanity: A North Korean Case Study, Megan Alyssa Novak. PDF. General Strain Theory and Bullying Victimization: Do Parental Support and Control Alleviate the Negative Effects of Bullying, Jonathon Thompson. Theses/Dissertations from 2014 PDF
Theses/Dissertations from 2024 PDF. Cleaning the Dirty Pool: Testing Interaction Effects Using Different Panel Model Specifications, Rhiannon Berry. PDF. Exploring Evidentiary Approaches and Reform Potential in the Allies in Change Program for Abusive Intimate Partners, Julie Melissa Conner. PDF
Criminology MA students have the option of writing a thesis or taking a comprehensive examination (and enrolling in two additional courses). Most criminology students select the thesis option, consistent with our emphasis on students' research skills. ... Criminology: Electives: Thesis students take 9 credits in three graduate-level elective ...
The association between crime and place is one of the most empirically supported notions in criminology. However, less is known about whether the internet has impacted the environmental conditions that contribute to crime in physical space. To address this gap, this dissertation examines the intersection of crime, place, and networks in the ...
theses from 2019 pdf. transformational leadership and organizational preparedness in policing, olasubomi david ayeni. pdf. child abuse and neglect: general strain and prosocial coping through employment, rachel s. berner. pdf
Thesis Books. A Thesis Resource Guide for Criminology and Criminal Justice by Marilyn D. McShane; Frank P. Williams. Call Number: HV6024.5 .M37 2008. ISBN: 0132368951. Publication Date: 2019. This handbook is a comprehensive guide to developing and writing graduate level research. It takes the reader on a step-by-step journey through the entire ...
Criminology is the study of crime and criminal behavior, informed by principles of sociology and other non-legal fields, including psychology, economics, statistics, and anthropology. Criminologists examine a variety of related areas open_in_new, including: Characteristics of people who commit crimes.
Professor Sutherland defined criminology as the comprehensive study of law-making, law-breaking and law-enforcing mechanisms (Sutherland et al., 1992). This definition is an incredibly useful one as we look to explain not only individual behaviour but also how the criminal justice system (e.g., laws, policies, and government) controls ...
Criminology is a field primarily interested in acts constituted as crimes and the subsequent social responses to these criminal acts. Though sociological theories have played a prominent role in the development of the field of criminology, it is an interdisciplinary field organized around the study of law and crime, incorporating contributions from other disciplines such as psychology ...
Understanding Criminology Theories Criminology is the study of why individuals commit crimes and why they behave in certain situations. By understanding why a person commits […]
Thesis writing can seem like a very daunting task but your Criminology & Criminal Justice librarian, Nadine Anderson, is here to help. Contact me at [email protected] with your questions about identifying research gaps, finding sources for your literature review, and putting together your thesis proposal.. 1. Identify a research gap: your thesis should address a research gap which you ...
criminology, scientific study of the nonlegal aspects of crime and delinquency, including its causes, correction, and prevention, from the viewpoints of such diverse disciplines as anthropology, biology, psychology and psychiatry, economics, sociology, and statistics. Viewed from a legal perspective, the term crime refers to individual criminal ...
This book provides a guide for undergraduate criminology and criminal justice students undertaking their final-year dissertation. It speaks to the specific challenges for criminology students who may wish to research closed institutions (such as prisons, courts, or the police) or vulnerable populations (such as people with convictions, victims of crime, or young people), and offers guidance on ...
Criminal Justice and Criminology Theses . If you are a graduate student submitting your thesis or dissertation, please click here to access the submission form. Follow. Jump to: Theses/Dissertations from 2024 PDF. An Exploratory Study of Flora Poaching in Central Appalachia, McKinley Bowers. PDF.
Around the world, the number of students studying criminology at university has significantly increased. In the United Kingdom alone, more than 100 universities now offer over 800 undergraduate programmes involving criminology ().While criminologists have long reflected on the history of the discipline (e.g. Triplett, 2018), considered the work and identities of criminal justice practitioners ...
Theses/Dissertations from 2024. CARE TO CRIMINALIZATION: HOW ADULTS WITH LIVED CROSSOVER KID EXPERIENCE PERCIEVE THEIR EXPERIENCES IN THE CHILD PROTECTION SYSTEM AND THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM, Clarissa Kurzawski. Exit Through the Giftshop: Claims-making and the Construction of a Countercultural Brand, Cecil McGlynn.
Thesis Database | Institute of Criminology. We are pleased to post a selection of theses which have been given marks of distinction. Please note that it is not always possible to post theses of a confidential nature or if they include sensitive data. In some instances, sensitive data may have been removed.
Ted Bundy, Dennis Rader, and Aileen Wuornos are some of America's. deadliest serial killers, but each has backgrounds and traits that make them unique. This. paper will provide an analysis of their psychopathic traits, and a model showing the. significance of biological and environmental factors in their lives.
forms of terrorism have become a leitmotif of the age. In this oeuvre, Ulrich Beck (2002a) speaks of a 'terroristic world risk society', while Borradori (2003) refers to liv ing in 'a time of terror'. Yet, exactly what is it that is 'new' about new terrorism, and what kinds of theories might best equip criminology to address these issues?
The thesis of the field is that crimes are texts—broadly defined as things made by humans—with authors, audiences, and conditioning social contexts. That ... how the criminal justice system and academic criminology have influenced authors when writing literary texts. • The purportedly scientific writings of Italian criminolo-
Criminology Research agoncillo college inc. poblacion, agoncillo, batangas college of criminology chapter the problem and its background introduction research. ... 1 - Criminology Thesis. Bachelor of science in Criminology. Practical. 100% (10) 21. PPG mod3 Power Nature, Dimensions, Types and Consequences-converted.
Completed PhD Theses. Our PhD alumni study crime, order and security from a variety of disciplinary perspectives and theoretical approaches. Use the list below to expore the range of areas our doctoral students have explored over the years. Where available, theses are linked to TSpace, the University of Toronto's research repository, or else to ...
Congratulations to Mitch Macdonald on the successful defence of his PhD thesis "Folk theory in organized crime". Abstract. A number of grand narratives characterize organized crime in popular culture. The most common of which is that criminal organizations "on paper" resemble the formal corporate hierarchy of large multinational corporations.