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Anti-Federalist Writings

During the period from the drafting and proposal of the federal Constitution in September, 1787, to its ratification in 1789 there was an intense debate on ratification. The arguments against ratification appeared in various forms, by various authors, most of whom used a pseudonym. The positions of the Federalists, those who supported the Constitution, and the anti-Federalists, those who opposed it, were printed and reprinted by scores of newspapers across the country.

Due to its size, wealth, and influence and because it was the first state to call a ratifying convention, Pennsylvania was the focus of national attention. On October 5, anti-Federalist Samuel Bryan published the first of his "Centinel" essays in Philadelphia's Independent Gazetteer. Republished in newspapers in various states, the essays assailed the sweeping power of the central government, the usurpation of state sovereignty, and the absence of a bill of rights guaranteeing individual liberties such as freedom of speech and freedom of religion.

In New York the Constitution was under siege in the press by a series of essays signed “ Cato. ” Mounting a counterattack, Alexander Hamilton and John Jay enlisted help from Madison and, in late 1787, they published the first of a series of essays now known as the Federalist Papers . The 85 essays, most of which were penned by Hamilton himself, probed the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation and the need for an energetic national government.

Against the Federalist leadership and determination, the opposition in most states was disorganized and generally inert. The leading spokesmen were largely state-centered men with regional and local interests and loyalties. The anti-Federalists attacked on several fronts: the lack of a bill of rights, discrimination against southern states in navigation legislation, direct taxation, the loss of state sovereignty. Many charged that the Constitution represented the work of aristocratic politicians bent on protecting their own class interests.

The call for a bill of rights was the anti-Federalists' most powerful weapon. The anti-Federalists, demanded a more unequivocal Constitution, one that laid out for all to see the rights of the people and limitations of the power of government. Richard Henry Lee despaired at the lack of provisions to protect “ those essential rights of mankind without which liberty cannot exist. ” [ (Source: A More Perfect Union: The Creation of the U.S. Constitution ) ]

Although the anti-Federalists lost the struggle over ratification, their defense of individual rights and suspicion of power remain core American political values, and the bill of rights is a lasting monument to their importance.

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Federalist papers

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Federalist papers , series of 85 essays on the proposed new Constitution of the United States and on the nature of republican government , published between 1787 and 1788 by Alexander Hamilton , James Madison , and John Jay in an effort to persuade New York state voters to support ratification. Seventy-seven of the essays first appeared serially in New York newspapers, were reprinted in most other states, and were published in book form as The Federalist on May 28, 1788; the remaining eight essays appeared in New York newspapers between June 14 and August 16, 1788.

All the papers appeared over the signature “Publius,” and the authorship of some of the papers was once a matter of scholarly dispute . However, computer analysis and historical evidence has led nearly all historians to assign authorship in the following manner: Hamilton wrote numbers 1, 6–9, 11–13, 15–17, 21–36, 59–61, and 65–85; Madison , numbers 10, 14, 18–20, 37–58, and 62–63; and Jay, numbers 2–5 and 64.

The authors of the Federalist papers presented a masterly defense of the new federal system and of the major departments in the proposed central government. They also argued that the existing government under the Articles of Confederation , the country’s first constitution, was defective and that the proposed Constitution would remedy its weaknesses without endangering the liberties of the people.

As a general treatise on republican government, the Federalist papers are distinguished for their comprehensive analysis of the means by which the ideals of justice , the general welfare , and the rights of individuals could be realized. The authors assumed that people’s primary political motive is self-interest and that people—whether acting individually or collectively—are selfish and only imperfectly rational. The establishment of a republican form of government would not of itself provide protection against such characteristics: the representatives of the people might betray their trust; one segment of the population might oppress another; and both the representatives and the public might give way to passion or caprice . The possibility of good government, they argued, lay in the crafting of political institutions that would compensate for deficiencies in both reason and virtue in the ordinary conduct of politics. This theme was predominant in late 18th-century political thought in America and accounts in part for the elaborate system of checks and balances that was devised in the Constitution.

The authors of the Federalist papers argued against the decentralization of political authority under the Articles of Confederation. They worried, for example, that national commercial interests suffered from intransigent economic conflicts between states and that federal weakness undermined American diplomatic efforts abroad. Broadly, they argued that the government’s impotence under the Articles of Confederation obstructed America’s emergence as a powerful commercial empire.

The authors were also critical of the power assumed by state legislatures under the Articles of Confederation—and of the characters of the people serving in those assemblies. In the authors’ view, the farmers and artisans who rose to power in postrevolutionary America were too beholden to narrow economic and regional interests to serve the broader public good. Of particular concern to the authors was the passage by state legislatures of pro-debtor legislation and paper money laws that threatened creditors’ property rights . Unlike most Americans of the period, who typically worried about the conspiracies of the elite few against the liberties of the people, the authors were concerned about tyrannical legislative majorities threatening the rights of propertied minorities. The Articles of Confederation, in their view, had provided no safeguards against the vices of the people themselves, and the American Revolution’s enthusiasm for liberty had diminished popular appreciation of the need for good governance. The Federalist papers presented the 1786–87 insurrection of debtor farmers in western Massachusetts— Shays’s Rebellion —as a symptom of this broader crisis.

The authors of the Federalist papers argued for an increase in the “energy” of the federal government to respond to this crisis. However, the national government’s increased power would have to be based in republican principles and retain a federal distribution of power; there would be no return to monarchical rule or consolidation of central authority.

In one of the most notable essays, “Federalist 10,” Madison rejected the then common belief that republican government was possible only for small states. He argued that stability, liberty, and justice were more likely to be achieved in a large area with a numerous and heterogeneous population. Although frequently interpreted as an attack on majority rule, the essay is in reality a defense of both social, economic, and cultural pluralism and of a composite majority formed by compromise and conciliation. Decision by such a majority, rather than by a monistic one, would be more likely to accord with the proper ends of government. This distinction between a proper and an improper majority typifies the fundamental philosophy of the Federalist papers; republican institutions, including the principle of majority rule, were not considered good in themselves but were good because they constituted the best means for the pursuit of justice and the preservation of liberty.

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The first amendment, constitution 101 resources, 5.3 info brief: the anti-federalists.

This activity is part of  M odule 5: The Bill of Rights  from the  Constitution 101 Curriculum . 

Who were the Anti-Federalists?

The Anti-Federalists opposed the new Constitution.

The Anti-Federalist camp included a group of founding-era heavyweights, including: 

• Virginia’s George Mason, Patrick Henry, and Richard Henry Lee
• Massachusetts’s Samuel Adams, Elbridge Gerry, and Mercy Otis Warren
• New York’s powerful Governor George Clinton

What about the rank-and-file Anti-Federalists? Generally speaking, Anti-Federalists were more likely to be small farmers than lawyers or merchants.

In addition, Anti-Federalist support was stronger:

• Out West rather than in the East
• In rural areas rather than in the cities
• In large states rather than in small states

While many Americans know about the Federalist Papers, the Anti-Federalists included their own set of powerful authors—every bit as politically potent and theoretically sophisticated as their Federalist opponents. For instance, there’s “Brutus”—usually thought to be leading New York Anti-Federalists (and one-time Constitutional Convention delegate) Robert Yates—and his influential set of essays. In addition, Massachusetts poet, historian, and patriot Mercy Otis Warren penned her own widely read Observations on the New Constitution, using the pen name “A Columbian Patriot.” Finally, other key Anti-Federalist writers included Federal Farmer (likely New York’s Melancton Smith or Virginia’s Richard Henry Lee) and Centinel (Pennsylvania’s Samuel Bryan).

What were some of the Anti-Federalists’ main reasons for opposing the new Constitution?

In many ways, the ratification battle was a debate over political power—and where to place it. In other words, it was a battle over federalism—the question of how much power to give to the national government and how much power to keep with the states.

While the Federalists argued for a stronger national government, the Anti-Federalists defended a vision of America rooted in powerful states. 

The Anti-Federalists feared that the new Constitution gave the national government too much power. And that this new government—led by a new group of distant, out-of-touch political elites—would:

• Seize all political power
• Swallow up the states—the governments that were closest to the people themselves
• Abuse the rights of the American people

For the Anti-Federalists, this was the road to tyranny.

Remember, Americans at the founding rarely traveled outside of their own towns. For them, the nation’s capital—though located in New York, Philadelphia, and (eventually) Washington, D.C.—might as well have been in London. So, the Anti-Federalists weren’t interested in replacing a powerful, out-of-touch, distant government in Great Britain with a new one in some distant American city. Better to keep most political power at the state and local level—where it had always been in America—and limit the powers of the national government.

In the end, the Anti-Federalists faced an uphill fight during the battle over ratification. Americans had largely concluded that the Articles of Confederation had serious problems. Even many key Anti-Federalists agreed with that.

Furthermore, to win political battles, it often takes a plan to beat a plan. The Federalists had a plan—the new Constitution. The Anti-Federalists didn’t.

As a result, it was easy for the Federalists to frame the ratification fight as a battle between a new Constitution and the deeply flawed Articles of Confederation.

Even so, the Anti-Federalists almost won.

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Pocket Constitution Books   ");x2("qmparent",lsp,1);lsp.cdiv=b;b.idiv=lsp;if(qm_n&&qm_v The Federalist Papers The Federalist Papers are a series of 85 essays arguing in support of the United States Constitution . Alexander Hamilton , James Madison , and John Jay were the authors behind the pieces, and the three men wrote collectively under the name of Publius . Seventy-seven of the essays were published as a series in The Independent Journal , The New York Packet , and The Daily Advertiser between October of 1787 and August 1788. They weren't originally known as the "Federalist Papers," but just "The Federalist." The final 8 were added in after. At the time of publication, the authorship of the articles was a closely guarded secret. It wasn't until Hamilton's death in 1804 that a list crediting him as one of the authors became public. It claimed fully two-thirds of the essays for Hamilton. Many of these would be disputed by Madison later on, who had actually written a few of the articles attributed to Hamilton. Once the Federal Convention sent the Constitution to the Confederation Congress in 1787, the document became the target of criticism from its opponents. Hamilton, a firm believer in the Constitution, wrote in Federalist No. 1 that the series would "endeavor to give a satisfactory answer to all the objections which shall have made their appearance, that may seem to have any claim to your attention." Alexander Hamilton was the force behind the project, and was responsible for recruiting James Madison and John Jay to write with him as Publius. Two others were considered, Gouverneur Morris and William Duer . Morris rejected the offer, and Hamilton didn't like Duer's work. Even still, Duer managed to publish three articles in defense of the Constitution under the name Philo-Publius , or "Friend of Publius." Hamilton chose "Publius" as the pseudonym under which the series would be written, in honor of the great Roman Publius Valerius Publicola . The original Publius is credited with being instrumental in the founding of the Roman Republic. Hamilton thought he would be again with the founding of the American Republic. He turned out to be right. John Jay was the author of five of the Federalist Papers. He would later serve as Chief Justice of the United States. Jay became ill after only contributed 4 essays, and was only able to write one more before the end of the project, which explains the large gap in time between them. Jay's Contributions were Federalist: No. 2 , No. 3 , No. 4 , No. 5 , and No. 64 . James Madison , Hamilton's major collaborator, later President of the United States and "Father of the Constitution." He wrote 29 of the Federalist Papers, although Madison himself, and many others since then, asserted that he had written more. A known error in Hamilton's list is that he incorrectly ascribed No. 54 to John Jay, when in fact Jay wrote No. 64 , has provided some evidence for Madison's suggestion. Nearly all of the statistical studies show that the disputed papers were written by Madison, but as the writers themselves released no complete list, no one will ever know for sure. Opposition to the Bill of Rights The Federalist Papers, specifically Federalist No. 84 , are notable for their opposition to what later became the United States Bill of Rights . Hamilton didn't support the addition of a Bill of Rights because he believed that the Constitution wasn't written to limit the people. It listed the powers of the government and left all that remained to the states and the people. Of course, this sentiment wasn't universal, and the United States not only got a Constitution, but a Bill of Rights too. No. 1: General Introduction Written by: Alexander Hamilton October 27, 1787 No.2: Concerning Dangers from Foreign Force and Influence Written by: John Jay October 31, 1787 No. 3: The Same Subject Continued: Concerning Dangers from Foreign Force and Influence Written by: John Jay November 3, 1787 No. 4: The Same Subject Continued: Concerning Dangers from Foreign Force and Influence Written by: John Jay November 7, 1787 No. 5: The Same Subject Continued: Concerning Dangers from Foreign Force and Influence Written by: John Jay November 10, 1787 No. 6:Concerning Dangers from Dissensions Between the States Written by: Alexander Hamilton November 14, 1787 No. 7 The Same Subject Continued: Concerning Dangers from Dissensions Between the States Written by: Alexander Hamilton November 15, 1787 No. 8: The Consequences of Hostilities Between the States Written by: Alexander Hamilton November 20, 1787 No. 9 The Union as a Safeguard Against Domestic Faction and Insurrection Written by: Alexander Hamilton November 21, 1787 No. 10 The Same Subject Continued: The Union as a Safeguard Against Domestic Faction and Insurrection Written by: James Madison November 22, 1787 No. 11 The Utility of the Union in Respect to Commercial Relations and a Navy Written by: Alexander Hamilton November 24, 1787 No 12: The Utility of the Union In Respect to Revenue Written by: Alexander Hamilton November 27, 1787 No. 13: Advantage of the Union in Respect to Economy in Government Written by: Alexander Hamilton November 28, 1787 No. 14: Objections to the Proposed Constitution From Extent of Territory Answered Written by: James Madison November 30, 1787 No 15: The Insufficiency of the Present Confederation to Preserve the Union Written by: Alexander Hamilton December 1, 1787 No. 16: The Same Subject Continued: The Insufficiency of the Present Confederation to Preserve the Union Written by: Alexander Hamilton December 4, 1787 No. 17: The Same Subject Continued: The Insufficiency of the Present Confederation to Preserve the Union Written by: Alexander Hamilton December 5, 1787 No. 18: The Same Subject Continued: The Insufficiency of the Present Confederation to Preserve the Union Written by: James Madison December 7, 1787 No. 19: The Same Subject Continued: The Insufficiency of the Present Confederation to Preserve the Union Written by: James Madison December 8, 1787 No. 20: The Same Subject Continued: The Insufficiency of the Present Confederation to Preserve the Union Written by: James Madison December 11, 1787 No. 21: Other Defects of the Present Confederation Written by: Alexander Hamilton December 12, 1787 No. 22: The Same Subject Continued: Other Defects of the Present Confederation Written by: Alexander Hamilton December 14, 1787 No. 23: The Necessity of a Government as Energetic as the One Proposed to the Preservation of the Union Written by: Alexander Hamilton December 18, 1787 No. 24: The Powers Necessary to the Common Defense Further Considered Written by: Alexander Hamilton December 19, 1787 No. 25: The Same Subject Continued: The Powers Necessary to the Common Defense Further Considered Written by: Alexander Hamilton December 21, 1787 No. 26: The Idea of Restraining the Legislative Authority in Regard to the Common Defense Considered Written by: Alexander Hamilton December 22, 1787 No. 27: The Same Subject Continued: The Idea of Restraining the Legislative Authority in Regard to the Common Defense Considered Written by: Alexander Hamilton December 25, 1787 No. 28: The Same Subject Continued: The Idea of Restraining the Legislative Authority in Regard to the Common Defense Considered Written by: Alexander Hamilton December 26, 1787 No. 29: Concerning the Militia Written by: Alexander Hamilton January 9, 1788 No. 30: Concerning the General Power of Taxation Written by: Alexander Hamilton December 28, 1787 No. 31: The Same Subject Continued: Concerning the General Power of Taxation Written by: Alexander Hamilton January 1, 1788 No. 32: The Same Subject Continued: Concerning the General Power of Taxation Written by: Alexander Hamilton January 2, 1788 No. 33: The Same Subject Continued: Concerning the General Power of Taxation Written by: Alexander Hamilton January 2, 1788 No. 34: The Same Subject Continued: Concerning the General Power of Taxation Written by: Alexander Hamilton January 5, 1788 No. 35: The Same Subject Continued: Concerning the General Power of Taxation Written by: Alexander Hamilton January 5, 1788 No. 36: The Same Subject Continued: Concerning the General Power of Taxation Written by: Alexander Hamilton January 8, 1788 No. 37: Concerning the Difficulties of the Convention in Devising a Proper Form of Government Written by: Alexander Hamilton January 11, 1788 No. 38: The Same Subject Continued, and the Incoherence of the Objections to the New Plan Exposed Written by: James Madison January 12, 1788 No. 39: The Conformity of the Plan to Republican Principles Written by: James Madison January 18, 1788 No. 40: The Powers of the Convention to Form a Mixed Government Examined and Sustained Written by: James Madison January 18, 1788 No. 41: General View of the Powers Conferred by the Constitution Written by: James Madison January 19, 1788 No. 42: The Powers Conferred by the Constitution Further Considered Written by: James Madison January 22, 1788 No. 43: The Same Subject Continued: The Powers Conferred by the Constitution Further Considered Written by: James Madison January 23, 1788 No. 44: Restrictions on the Authority of the Several States Written by: James Madison January 25, 1788 No. 45: The Alleged Danger From the Powers of the Union to the State Governments Considered Written by: James Madison January 26, 1788 No. 46: The Influence of the State and Federal Governments Compared Written by: James Madison January 29, 1788 No. 47: The Particular Structure of the New Government and the Distribution of Power Among Its Different Parts Written by: James Madison January 30, 1788 No. 48: These Departments Should Not Be So Far Separated as to Have No Constitutional Control Over Each Other Written by: James Madison February 1, 1788 No. 49: Method of Guarding Against the Encroachments of Any One Department of Government Written by: James Madison February 2, 1788 No. 50: Periodic Appeals to the People Considered Written by: James Madison February 5, 1788 No. 51: The Structure of the Government Must Furnish the Proper Checks and Balances Between the Different Departments Written by: James Madison February 6, 1788 No. 52: The House of Representatives Written by: James Madison February 8, 1788 No. 53: The Same Subject Continued: The House of Representatives Written by: James Madison February 9, 1788 No. 54: The Apportionment of Members Among the States Written by: James Madison February 12, 1788 No. 55: The Total Number of the House of Representatives Written by: James Madison February 13, 1788 No. 56: The Same Subject Continued: The Total Number of the House of Representatives Written by: James Madison February 16, 1788 No. 57: The Alleged Tendency of the New Plan to Elevate the Few at the Expense of the Many Written by: James Madison February 19, 1788 No. 58: Objection That The Number of Members Will Not Be Augmented as the Progress of Population Demands Considered Written by: James Madison February 20, 1788 No. 59: Concerning the Power of Congress to Regulate the Election of Members Written by: Alexander Hamilton February 22, 1788 No. 60: The Same Subject Continued: Concerning the Power of Congress to Regulate the Election of Members Written by: Alexander Hamilton February 23, 1788 No. 61: The Same Subject Continued: Concerning the Power of Congress to Regulate the Election of Members Written by: Alexander Hamilton February 26, 1788 No. 62: The Senate Written by: James Madison February 27, 1788 No. 63: The Senate Continued Written by: James Madison March 1, 1788 No. 64: The Powers of the Senate Written by: John Jay March 5, 1788 No. 65: The Powers of the Senate Continued Written by: Alexander Hamilton March 7, 1788 No. 66: Objections to the Power of the Senate To Set as a Court for Impeachments Further Considered Written by: Alexander Hamilton March 8, 1788 No. 67: The Executive Department Written by: Alexander Hamilton March 11, 1788 No. 68: The Mode of Electing the President Written by: Alexander Hamilton March 12, 1788 No. 69: The Real Character of the Executive Written by: Alexander Hamilton March 14, 1788 No. 70: The Executive Department Further Considered Written by: Alexander Hamilton March 15, 1788 No. 71: The Duration in Office of the Executive Written by: Alexander Hamilton March 18, 1788 No. 72: The Same Subject Continued, and Re-Eligibility of the Executive Considered Written by: Alexander Hamilton March 19, 1788 No. 73: The Provision For The Support of the Executive, and the Veto Power Written by: Alexander Hamilton March 21, 1788 No. 74: The Command of the Military and Naval Forces, and the Pardoning Power of the Executive Written by: Alexander Hamilton March 25, 1788 No. 75: The Treaty Making Power of the Executive Written by: Alexander Hamilton March 26, 1788 No. 76: The Appointing Power of the Executive Written by: Alexander Hamilton April 1, 1788 No. 77: The Appointing Power Continued and Other Powers of the Executive Considered Written by: Alexander Hamilton April 2, 1788 No. 78: The Judiciary Department Written by: Alexander Hamilton June 14, 1788 No. 79: The Judiciary Continued Written by: Alexander Hamilton June 18, 1788 No. 80: The Powers of the Judiciary Written by: Alexander Hamilton June 21, 1788 No. 81: The Judiciary Continued, and the Distribution of the Judicial Authority Written by: Alexander Hamilton June 25, 1788 No. 82: The Judiciary Continued Written by: Alexander Hamilton July 2, 1788 No. 83: The Judiciary Continued in Relation to Trial by Jury Written by: Alexander Hamilton July 5, 1788 No. 84: Certain General and Miscellaneous Objections to the Constitution Considered and Answered Written by: Alexander Hamilton July 16, 1788 No. 85: Concluding Remarks Written by: Alexander Hamilton August 13, 1788 Images courtesy of Wikimedia Commons, licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-Share-Alike License 3.0. To learn more about the Constitution — the people, the events, the landmark cases — order a copy of “The U.S. Constitution & Fascinating Facts About It” today! Call to order: 1-800-887-6661 or order books online. © Oak Hill Publishing Company. All rights reserved. Oak Hill Publishing Company. Box 6473, Naperville, IL 60567 For questions or comments about this site please email us at [email protected] U.S. Constitution.net Federalists vs. anti-federalists, origins and key figures. The Federalists, led by Alexander Hamilton , James Madison , and John Jay , advocated for a strong national government through the Constitution. They believed centralized power would effectively bind the states, fostering unity and stability. Opposing them were the Anti-Federalists, including Patrick Henry and George Mason , who feared that such power would undermine individual liberties and states' rights. The Anti-Federalists had diverse concerns, such as the Constitution threatening state sovereignty and the absence of a Bill of Rights leaving citizens unprotected against potential tyranny. George Mason argued that without explicit protections, individual rights would be overpowered. Federalists like Hamilton and Madison saw the Constitution as a necessity for the nation's stability, with a robust central government promoting unity and security. The Federalist Papers , co-authored by Hamilton, Madison, and Jay, presented arguments for a large republic, insisting that a broad network would protect minority rights from majority rule. They claimed the Constitution's checks and balances were sufficient to prevent any branch from gaining excessive power. In Virginia, Patrick Henry passionately warned that the Constitution would unravel hard-earned liberties. Madison, tasked with advocating for ratification, promised the addition of a Bill of Rights to win over skeptics. Governor George Clinton of New York vigorously opposed ratification, with his faction attempting to delay proceedings. However, news of other states ratifying forced their hand, and New York eventually consented. The Massachusetts Compromise, proposing ratification while suggesting amendments, became a model for other states, leading to the adoption of the Bill of Rights. This appeased the Anti-Federalists' demands for personal freedoms. The Federalist and Anti-Federalist debates revealed deep ideological rifts that would shape American politics for decades. These tumultuous discussions formed the bedrock of American democratic principles and governance, helping to cement the liberties and structures Americans hold dear today. Major Concerns and Arguments The Federalists, disillusioned by the ineffective Articles of Confederation, believed that a robust central authority was essential for ensuring a stable and unified nation. The Articles had left the country with weaknesses such as: The inability to levy taxes Lack of regulation of interstate commerce No executive or judiciary to enforce or interpret laws, leading to interstate conflict and economic instability Hamilton and Madison argued that a stronger central government would remedy these deficiencies. Hamilton emphasized that a vast republic would provide more security and stability by protecting against factionalism, where a majority could oppress minority interests. They believed that a larger network of states and a balanced system of checks and balances would better safeguard individual liberties. Anti-Federalists, however, feared that concentrated power could easily devolve into tyranny. George Mason and Patrick Henry contended that the proposed Constitution granted excessive authority to the federal government, threatening state sovereignty and personal freedoms. They worried that centralized powers could undermine local governance and individual rights, leading to an oppressive regime. A significant source of contention was the absence of a Bill of Rights in the original Constitution draft. Anti-Federalists argued that without explicit protections for individual liberties, there would be nothing to prevent the federal government from infringing upon fundamental rights. Patrick Henry cautioned that all "pretensions to human rights and privileges" were at risk without clear safeguards. 1 Federalists believed that a Bill of Rights was unnecessary, contending that the Constitution's provision for a limited government with enumerated powers already offered sufficient protection. Nevertheless, as a strategic move to secure ratification, Federalists eventually conceded to the Anti-Federalist demands, leading to the addition of the Bill of Rights as the first ten amendments. The preservation of state sovereignty was another critical matter for the Anti-Federalists. They feared that the augmentation of federal power would overshadow state governments, reducing them to mere administrative units. The Anti-Federalist Papers , written under pseudonyms such as Brutus and Federal Farmer, argued for a more decentralized federal structure. Federalists sought a balance where the federal government had sufficient power to govern effectively, but not so much that it would negate the states' significance. Madison articulated that an extended republic with a well-defined separation of powers would achieve this equilibrium, ensuring that both the states and the federal apparatus shared in sovereign authority while protecting against any one branch gaining undue power. Key Events and Debates The state conventions were crucial arenas where the fate of the Constitution was decided. These conventions were the battlegrounds where Federalists and Anti-Federalists presented their arguments, swayed public opinion, and ultimately determined the course of the new nation. The Virginia Ratification Convention in 1788 was one of the most critical gatherings. Federalists, led by James Madison, made a compelling case for a strong national government, arguing that a unified republic with well-defined checks and balances was essential for stability and the protection of individual liberties. Patrick Henry, a formidable Anti-Federalist orator, questioned the foundation of the proposed Constitution, raising concerns about federal overreach and the absence of a Bill of Rights. Despite initial resistance, the Federalists managed to turn the tide by promising to add a Bill of Rights, addressing the Anti-Federalists' primary concern and securing support for ratification. This concession demonstrated the Federalists' pragmatic approach and willingness to compromise to achieve a unified national framework. In New York, the debates were equally contentious. Governor George Clinton led the charge against ratification, leveraging his political influence to galvanize opposition. The Anti-Federalists employed delay tactics, hoping to stall ratification and rally more opposition. However, the momentum created by other states ratifying the Constitution placed immense pressure on New York. Facing the inevitable, New York ratified the Constitution but attached a list of proposed amendments, advocating for changes that would protect states' rights and individual liberties. Public marches and violent confrontations also played a role in the ratification process. The streets of Albany, New York, witnessed a dramatic clash between Federalists and Anti-Federalists, underscoring the deep divisions and passionate sentiments both sides held. The incident highlighted the intensity of the debate, with both parties fighting with determined obstinacy. The Massachusetts Ratification Convention revealed the power of strategic compromise. John Hancock played a pivotal role in brokering the Massachusetts Compromise, proposing ratification with recommended amendments. This bridged the gap between Federalists and Anti-Federalists, paving the way for other states to follow suit. This model of ratification with suggested amendments ultimately led to the inclusion of the Bill of Rights, satisfying many of the Anti-Federalists' concerns and facilitating wider acceptance of the new Constitution. 2 The ratification process was a series of debates and compromises that reflected the nation's diverse viewpoints and foundational ideals. Each state convention became a microcosm of the larger battle over the balance of power, the protection of liberties, and the structure of governance. The successful ratification of the Constitution and the eventual inclusion of the Bill of Rights were testaments to the Founding Fathers' ability to traverse these turbulent waters and establish a framework that balanced governance with freedoms. Impact of the Ratification The ratification of the United States Constitution addressed the deficiencies of the Articles of Confederation by consolidating state powers under a central federal system. This system could levy taxes, regulate interstate commerce, and enforce laws through a unified judiciary and executive branch, providing national coherence and fostering economic stability. The Constitution introduced checks and balances to prevent any one branch of government from amassing excessive power. The separation of powers among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches aimed to create an equilibrium that would preserve both federal and state sovereignty, protecting individual freedoms and ensuring government accountability. The adoption of the Bill of Rights in 1791 provided explicit protections for individual liberties, such as: Freedom of speech Freedom of religion Freedom of the press Rights related to criminal proceedings Protection of private property These amendments have become cornerstones of American civil liberties. The establishment of a federal judiciary proved to be a landmark outcome of the Constitution's ratification. The Judiciary Act of 1789 created a hierarchical court system with the Supreme Court at its apex, providing a mechanism for resolving disputes between states and ensuring consistent application of federal laws. The ratification debate introduced the concept of federalism —a balance between national and state powers. This dual sovereignty has allowed the United States to remain adaptable and responsive to both local and national needs. The Constitution has evolved through amendments, Supreme Court interpretations, and changing political norms, demonstrating flexibility while maintaining its foundational principles. This adaptability has made it possible to address new challenges without abandoning the core values of liberty, justice, and the rule of law. The ratification of the Constitution transformed the immediate political landscape and set in motion a framework for governance that respects individual liberties while promoting collective strength. This blueprint has enabled the United States to confront centuries of change and challenge. Legacy and Modern Relevance The Anti-Federalists' advocacy for states' rights continues to shape discussions on federalism in contemporary American politics. Many political movements draw inspiration from Anti-Federalist ideals, emphasizing the importance of state autonomy in addressing local issues. The Federalists' vision of a strong central government capable of unifying a diverse nation underpins America's national framework. Issues such as interstate commerce, national security, and federal taxation are governed by principles first articulated by Federalists. The debate over individual liberties remains a pivotal aspect of American politics. The Bill of Rights serves as a guardian of personal freedoms and constraints on government power. Discussions around the First Amendment, the Second Amendment, and privacy rights are rooted in the philosophical battles of the ratification period. The balance of power between federal and state governments continues to be a subject of considerable debate. The Federalist design of a government with a clear separation of powers and checks and balances prevents any single entity from gaining too much control. Recent Supreme Court cases wrestle with the limits of federal versus state authority on issues such as healthcare and immigration policy. The resilience and adaptability of the Constitution, envisioned by the Federalists, is evident in how it has weathered centuries of change. The Federalist Papers serve as a vital reference for contemporary legal theory and Constitutional interpretation. The Federalist and Anti-Federalist debates have left an indelible legacy on American governance. Their arguments about states' rights, individual liberties, and the balance of power continue to inform the United States' constitutional framework and its application in modern society. The dedication of these early American thinkers has ensured that their discussions shaped the founding of the nation and provide guiding principles for the United States as it confronts the challenges of the 21st century. Photo by finephotographics on Unsplash Library of Congress Research Guides Main Reading Room Federalist Papers: Primary Documents in American History Introduction. Federalist Nos. 1-10 Federalist Nos. 11-20 Federalist Nos. 21-30 Federalist Nos. 31-40 Federalist Nos. 41-50 Federalist Nos. 51-60 Federalist Nos. 61-70 Federalist Nos. 71-80 Federalist Nos. 81-85 Related Digital Resources External Websites Print Resources History, Humanities & Social Sciences : Ask a Librarian Have a question? Need assistance? Use our online form to ask a librarian for help. Chat with a librarian , Monday through Friday, 12-4pm Eastern Time (except Federal Holidays). Authors: Ken Drexler, Reference Specialist, Researcher and Reference Services Division Robert Brammer, Legal Information Specialist, Law Library of Congress Editor: Barbara Bavis, Bibliographic and Research Instruction Librarian, Law Library of Congress Created: May 3, 2019 Last Updated: August 13, 2019 The Federalist Papers were a series of eighty-five essays urging the citizens of New York to ratify the new United States Constitution. Written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay, the essays originally appeared anonymously in New York newspapers in 1787 and 1788 under the pen name "Publius." The Federalist Papers are considered one of the most important sources for interpreting and understanding the original intent of the Constitution. The Federalist Papers - Full Text This web-friendly presentation of the original text of the Federalist Papers (also known as The Federalist ) was obtained from the e-text archives of Project Gutenberg. Title Page of "The Federalist" (N.Y. John Tiebout, 1799). 1799. Library of Congress Prints & Photographs Division. Publius (pseudonym for james madison). “the federalist. no. x” in the new york daily advertiser. page 2. (november 22, 1787). library of congress serial and government publications division. The federalist : a collection of essays, written in favour of the new Constitution, as agreed upon by the Federal Convention, September 17, 1787. . Library of Congress Rare Book & Special Collections Division. Next: Full Text of The Federalist Papers >> Last Updated: Apr 25, 2024 10:16 AM URL: https://guides.loc.gov/federalist-papers 131 IMAGES ⇉Anti-Federalist vs. Federalist Essay Example Essay on federalists vs anti federalist Anti-Federalist Writings: An Introduction The Anti-Federalist Papers Were the Anti-Federalists Right Essay Example The Complete Anti-Federalist COMMENTS Anti-Federalist Papers The Anti-Federalist papers are a selection of the written arguments against the US Constitution by those known to posterity as the Anti-Federalists. As with the Federalist papers, these essays were originally published in newspapers. The most widely known are "a series of sixteen essays published in the New York Journal from October 1787 ... The Anti-Federalist Papers The Anti-Federalist Papers. Unlike the Federalist, the 85 articles written in opposition to the ratification of the 1787 United States Constitution were not a part of an organized program. Rather, the essays-- written under many pseudonyms and often published first in states other than New York — represented diverse elements of the ... The Federalist Papers Establishing authorial authenticity of the essays that constitute The Federalist Papers has not always been clear. After Hamilton's death in 1804, a list emerged, claiming that he alone had written two-thirds of The Federalist essays. Some believe that several of these essays were written by Madison (Nos. 49-58 and 62-63). The Anti-Federalists and their important role during the Ratification Fewer know of the Anti-Federalist Papers authored by Cato and other incognito writers, their significance to American political history, or their responsibility for producing the Bill of Rights. When the Constitution was drafted in the summer of 1787, its ratification was far from certain; it still needed to be ratified by at least nine of the ... Anti-Federalists Anti-Federalists, in early U.S. history, a loose political coalition of popular politicians, such as Patrick Henry, who unsuccessfully opposed the strong central government envisioned in the U.S. Constitution of 1787 and whose agitations led to the addition of a Bill of Rights.The first in the long line of states' rights advocates, they feared the authority of a single national government ... Info Brief: Who Were the Federalists and the Anti-Federalists? The Federalist Papers were a series of 85 essays printed in newspapers to persuade critics of the Constitution and those on the fence to support ratification. Alexander Hamilton wrote 51 of these essays, James Madison 29, and John Jay five. All three authors wrote under the same famous pen name—"Publius.". Federalist Papers: Summary, Authors & Impact The Federalist Papers are a collection of essays written in the 1780s in support of the proposed U.S. Constitution and the strong federal government it advocated. In October 1787, the first in a ... Anti-Federalist papers The Anti-Federalist papers is a term that refers to the published writings of founding fathers arguing against the ratification of the U.S. Constitution at the Constitutional Convention of 1787. The more than 50 authors of the Anti-Federalist Papers worked independently, and lacked the coordination of the authors of the Federalist Papers.The first efforts to compile the Anti-Federalist Papers ... Anti-Federalist Papers The principal arguments in favor of it were stated in the series written by Madison, Hamilton, and Jay called the Federalist Papers, although they were not as widely read as numerous independent local speeches and articles. The arguments against ratification appeared in various forms, by various authors, most of whom used a pseudonym. Anti-Federalist Writings Anti-Federalist Writings. During the period from the drafting and proposal of the federal Constitution in September, 1787, to its ratification in 1789 there was an intense debate on ratification. The arguments against ratification appeared in various forms, by various authors, most of whom used a pseudonym. Constitutional Topic: The Federalists and Anti-Federalists In addition, many letters were written to newspapers under various pseudonyms, like "The Federal Farmer," "Cato," "Brutus," and "Cincinnatus." These letters and several speeches are now known as "The Anti-Federalist Papers." In response to the speeches and letters of the Anti-Federalists, the Essay No. 1 (1787) Summary. "Brutus" was the pseudonym for one of the most forceful Anti-Federalist voices during the ratification debates over the U.S. Constitution. While scholars still debate the author of the Brutus Essays, most believe that they were written by New York Anti-Federalist Robert Yates. Yates was a New York state judge. Federalist papers The Federalist. The Federalist (1788), a book-form publication of 77 of the 85 Federalist essays. Federalist papers, series of 85 essays on the proposed new Constitution of the United States and on the nature of republican government, published between 1787 and 1788 by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay in an effort to persuade New ... Full Text of The Federalist Papers The Federalist, commonly referred to as the Federalist Papers, is a series of 85 essays written by Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison between October 1787 and May 1788.The essays were published anonymously, under the pen name "Publius," in various New York state newspapers of the time. The Federalist Papers were written and published to urge New Yorkers to ratify the proposed ... 5.3 Info Brief: The Anti-Federalists The Anti-Federalists feared that the new Constitution gave the national government too much power. And that this new government—led by a new group of distant, out-of-touch political elites—would: Seize all political power. Swallow up the states—the governments that were closest to the people themselves. Abuse the rights of the American ... Anti-Federalist Papers The Anti-Federalist Papers was the name given to 85 essays written by anonymous authors who were in opposition to the ratification of the United States Constitution in 1787. The Federalist Papers The Federalist Papers are a series of 85 essays arguing in support of the United States Constitution.Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay were the authors behind the pieces, and the three men wrote collectively under the name of Publius.. Seventy-seven of the essays were published as a series in The Independent Journal, The New York Packet, and The Daily Advertiser between October ... PDF The Federalist (and Antifederalist) Review Guide The Federalist (and Antifederalist) Review Guide The Federalist Papers were authored by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay in the fall/winter of 1787-1788. Federalists believed in a strong central government and used the press to encourage ratification of the newly proposed Anti-Federalist Papers: Their Place in American History The collection of essays that make up the The Anti-Federalist Papers was written by many authors. Some of them used "pen names," and many historians have a good idea of whom those anonymous individuals might be. ... Most of the essays or speeches included in The Anti-Federalist Papers were written by someone who used a pseudonym. These pen ... Federalist Papers: Primary Documents in American History The Federalist Papers were a series of essays written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay under the pen name "Publius." This guide compiles Library of Congress digital materials, external websites, and a print bibliography. ... The 85 essays known as the Federalist Papers were originally published as letters in New York ... Federalists vs. Anti-Federalists The Anti-Federalist Papers, written under pseudonyms such as Brutus and Federal Farmer, argued for a more decentralized federal structure. ... These conventions were the battlegrounds where Federalists and Anti-Federalists presented their arguments, swayed public opinion, and ultimately determined the course of the new nation. ... Federalist Papers: Primary Documents in American History The Federalist Papers were a series of eighty-five essays urging the citizens of New York to ratify the new United States Constitution. Written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay, the essays originally appeared anonymously in New York newspapers in 1787 and 1788 under the pen name "Publius." PDF The US Constitution: Federalists v. Anti-Federalists Federalists labeled their opponents Anti-Federalists, the first of many clever political maneuvers that helped to secure ratification. Crying foul, Anti-Federalists claimed that they were the true federalists, as they argued for more power to the states, and that the Federalists were actually nationalists. PDF Anti-Federalist essays of 'Philadelphiensis,' 1787-1788 Anti-Federalist essays of "Philadelphiensis," 1787-1788. MAKING THE REVOLUTION: AMERICA, 1763-1791. PRIMARY SOURCE COLLECTION. American Antiquarian Society. That the People have a Right to Freedom of Speech, and of writing, and publishing their Sentiments; therefore the Freedom of the Press ought not to be restrained. Pennsylvania Bill of Rights. Shafik's Columbia: 13 months and 13 days of a campus spiraling into crisis Columbia students first formed CUAD in 2016. Nov. 16, 2023 The U.S. Department of Education opened a federal investigation into Columbia and several peer institutions over alleged violations of Title VI of the 1964 Civil Rights Act relating to antisemitic and anti-Muslim harassment—the first in a long line of federal inquiries into the ... assignment essay homework paper phd review speech thesis